Trade, Labor Market & Growth

The literature on gender and international trade goes back to the 1980s, when the growth of  export-oriented manufacturing in some countries of the global South significantly increased the demand for female labour. This prompted a lively debate over whether the feminization of the workforce in export-oriented industries constituted a positive outcome or not. Since then, research on the interaction between gender relations and trade relations has expanded to various other dimensions and contexts, but remains dominated by studies on the impact of trade changes on gender gaps in employment and wages (only a fraction of these studies is reported here). Readings listed in this section are  grouped as follows: i. edited books, reports discussing how trade and gender issues should be framed and trade agreements assessed, as well as gender-aware approaches to trade policy; ii. studies examining the impact of gender inequality on trade, and iii. studies examining the impact of trade on gender inequality. The 2007 edited book The Feminist Economics of Trade remains one of the most comprehensive references. Among recent policy reports, differences in perspective might be noted between different international organizations, such as between the WTO and UNECA for example.

Elson, D., Grown, C, & Cagatay, N. (2007). Mainstream, Heterodox, and Feminist Trade Theory. In van Staveren, I., Elson, D., Grown, C., & Cagatay, N (Eds.) The Feminist Economics of Trade (pp. 51–70). Routledge.

Type: Book Chapter

 

Barrientos, Stephanie. (2020). Building back equitably: Spotlight on women workers in global value chains. Trade for Development News.

https://trade4devnews.enhancedif.org/en/op-ed/building-back-equitably-spotlight-women-workers-global-value-chains

Type: Op-Ed

 

Fontana, Marzia. (2020). Guidance Note on Data Analysis for Gender and Trade Assessments Gender, Social Inclusion and Trade Working Group. BKP Economic Advisors for UK  Aid. https://www.bkp-development.com/images/reports/Data_Analysis_for_Gender_and_Trade_Assessments_bkp_final.pdf

Type: Guidance Note

 

 

Fontana, Marzia. (2016). Gender Equality in Trade Agreements. European Parliament. Brussels.

https://www.europarl.europa.eu/RegData/etudes/STUD/2016/571388/IPOL_STU(2016)571388_EN.pdf

Type: Policy Report

 

Hannah, E., Roberts, A. & S.Trommer. (2021). Towards a feminist global trade politics, Globalizations, 18:1, 70-85.

https://doi.org/10.1080/14747731.2020.1779966

Type: Journal Article

 

UNCTAD. (2017). Trade and gender toolbox - How will the economic partnership agreement between the European Union and the East African Community affect Kenyan women? UNCTAD. Geneva

https://unctad.org/system/files/official-document/ditc2017d1_en.pdf

Type: Toolkit

 

van Staveren, I., Elson, D., Grown, C., & Cagatay, N. (Eds.) (2007). The Feminist Economics of Trade. New York: Routledge. 

https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203946077

Type: Book Chapter

 

Williams, M. (2007). Gender issues in the multilateral trading system. In van Staveren, I., Elson, D., Grown, C., & Cagatay, N. (Eds.) The Feminist Economics of Trade (pp. 295-309). New York: Routledge. 

https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203946077

Type: Book Chapter

 

World Bank and World Trade Organization. 2020. Women and Trade: The Role of Trade in Promoting Gender Equality. Washington, DC: World Bank.

https://doi.org/10.1596/978-1-4648-1541-6

Type: Policy Report

Blecker, R. A., & Seguino, S. (2002). Macroeconomic Effects of Reducing Gender Wage Inequality in an Export-Oriented, Semi-Industrialized Economy. Review of Development Economics, 6(1), 103–119.

https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-9361.00144\

Type: Journal Article

 

Darity, W. (1995). The formal structure of a gender-segregated low-income economy. World Development, 23(11), 1963–1968.

https://doi.org/10.1016/0305-750X(95)00082-N

Type: Journal Article

 

Seguino, S. (2010). Gender, Distribution, and Balance of Payments Constrained Growth in Developing Countries. Review of Political Economy, 22(3), 373–404.

https://doi.org/10.1080/09538259.2010.491285

Type: Journal Article

The list of readings under this section is not meant to be exhaustive. Studies were selected to capture a range of methodologies and measurement choices.

 

Berik, G., Rodgers, Y. van der M., & Zveglich, J. E. (2004). International Trade and Gender Wage Discrimination: Evidence from East Asia. Review of Development Economics, 8(2), 237–254. 

https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9361.2004.00230.x

Type: Journal Article

 

Bussolo, Maurizio; De Hoyos, Rafael E. (2009). Gender Aspects of the Trade and Poverty Nexus: A Macro-Micro Approach. Equity and Development. Washington, DC: World Bank and Palgrave Macmillan.

https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/handle/10986/13264

Type: Book

 

 

Domínguez, E., Icaza, R., Quintero, C., López, S., & Stenman, Å. (2010). Women Workers in the Maquiladoras and the Debate on Global Labor Standards. Feminist Economics, 16(4), 185–209. 

https://doi.org/10.1080/13545701.2010.530603

Type: Journal Article

 

Elson, D., & Pearson, R. (1981). ‘Nimble Fingers Make Cheap Workers’: An Analysis of Women’s Employment in Third World Export Manufacturing. Feminist Review, 7(1), 87–107. 

https://doi.org/10.1057/fr.1981.6

Type: Journal Article

 

Fontana, Marzia. (2007). Modeling the effects of trade on women, at work and at home: Comparative perspectives. In The Feminist Economics of Trade (pp. 135–158). New York: Routledge. 

https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203946077-17

Type: Book Chapter

 

Katz, E. G. (1995). Gender and trade within the household: observations from rural Guatemala. World Development, 23(2), 327–342.

https://doi.org/10.1016/0305-750X(94)00118-I

Type: Journal Article

 

Kucera, D., Roncolato, L., & von Uexkull, E. (2012). Trade Contraction and Employment in India and South Africa during the Global Crisis. World Development, 40(6), 1122–1134. 

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2011.11.003

Type: Journal Article

 

Menon, N., & Rodgers, Y. van der M. (2009). International Trade and the Gender Wage Gap: New Evidence from India’s Manufacturing Sector. World Development, 37(5), 965–981.

Type: Journal Article

 

Rani, U., & Unni, J. (2009). Do Economic Reforms Influence Home-Based Work? Evidence from India. Feminist Economics, 15(3), 191–225.

https://doi.org/10.1080/13545700902835586

Type: Journal Article

 

Siddiqui, R. (2009). Modeling Gender Effects of Pakistan’s Trade Liberalization. Feminist Economics, 15(3), 287–321.

https://doi.org/10.1080/13545700902964295

Type: Journal Article

 

Standing, Guy, 1999. Global Feminization Through Flexible Labor: A Theme Revisited. World Development, 27(3), 583-602.

Type: Journal Article

 

Tejani, S., & Milberg, W. (2016). Global Defeminization? Industrial Upgrading and Manufacturing Employment in Developing Countries. Feminist Economics, 22(2), 24–54. 

https://doi.org/10.1080/13545701.2015.1120880

Type: Journal Article

 

UNCTAD. (2017). The gender dynamics of inclusion and exclusion: A macro perspective on employment. UNCTAD. Geneva.

https://www.un-ilibrary.org/international-trade-and-finance/trade-and-development-report-2017_1cef4f1d-en

Type: Policy Report

 

Wamboye, E. F., & Seguino, S. (2015). Gender Effects of Trade Openness in Sub-Saharan Africa. Feminist Economics, 21(3), 82–113.

https://doi.org/10.1080/13545701.2014.927583

Type: Journal Article

 

Anwar, S. (2006). Provision of public infrastructure, foreign investment and welfare in the presence of specialisation-based external economies. Economic Modelling, 23, 142–156. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.econmod.2005.09.003

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Bils, M., & Klenow, P. J. (2000). Does schooling cause growth? American Economic Review, 90(5). https://doi.org/10.1257/aer.90.5.1160

Cockburn, J., Maisonnave, H., Robichaud, V., & Tiberti, L. (2016). Fiscal space and public spending on children in Burkina Faso. International Journal of Microsimulation, 9(1). https://doi.org/10.34196/ijm.00126

Freire-Seren, M. J. (2001). Human capital accumulation and economic growth. Investigaciones Economicas, 25(3), 585–602. https://econpapers.repec.org/RePEc:iec:inveco:v:25:y:2001:i:3:p:585-602

Glomm, G., & Ravikumar, B. (1994). Public investment in infrastructure in a simple growth model. Journal of Economic Dynamics and Control, 18(6). https://doi.org/10.1016/0165-1889(94)90052-3

Holtz-Eakin, D. (1994). Public-Sector Capital and the Productivity Puzzle. The Review of Economics and Statistics, 76(1). https://doi.org/10.2307/2109822

Jung, H. S., & Thorbecke, E. (2003). The impact of public education expenditure on human capital, growth, and poverty in Tanzania and Zambia: A general equilibrium approach. Journal of Policy Modeling, 25(8). https://doi.org/10.1016/S0161-8938(03)00060-7

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Mamuneas, T., & Nadiri, M. (1994). The Effects of Public Infrastructure and R&D Capital on the Cost Structure and Performance of U.S. Manufacturing Industries. The Review of Economics and Statistics, 76, 22–37. https://doi.org/10.2307/2109823

Martens, A. (2008). ELASTICITY OF TOTAL FACTOR PRODUCTIVITY WITH RESPECT TO TRADE OPENNESS IN THE CASE OF EMERGING COUNTRIES: A SURVEY OF ESTIMATES 1. /sites/pep-net.org/files/typo3doc/pdf/Martens_Trade-TFP3.pdf

Munnell, A. H. (1992). Policy Watch: Infrastructure Investment and Economic Growth. The Journal of Economic Perspectives, 6, 189–198. https://doi.org/10.2307/2138275

Nelson, R., & Phelps, E. (1966). Investment in Humans, Technology Diffusion and Economic Growth. The American Economic Review, 56(1/2).

Rioja, F. (2004). Infrastructure and sectoral output along the road to development. International Economic Journal, 18(1). https://doi.org/10.1080/1351161042000180638

Romer, P. M. (1990). Human capital and growth: Theory and evidence. Carnegie-Rochester Confer. Series on Public Policy, 32(C). https://doi.org/10.1016/0167-2231(90)90028-J

Altig, D. E., Carlstrom, C. T., & Lansing, K. J. (1995). Computable General Equilibrium Models and Monetary Policy Advice. Journal of Money, Credit and Banking, 27(4). https://doi.org/10.2307/2078065

Ballard, C. L. (1988). The marginal efficiency cost of redistribution. The American Economic Review, 78(5).

Easley, D., Kiefer, N. M., & Possen, U. M. (1993). An Equilibrium Analysis of Fiscal Policy with Uncertainty and Incomplete Markets. International Economic Review, 34(4), 935. https://doi.org/10.2307/2526973

Fontana, M., & Wood, A. (2000). Modeling the effects of trade on women, at work and at home. World Development, 28(7). https://doi.org/10.1016/S0305-750X(00)00033-4

Fullerton, D., & Henderson, Y. K. (1989). A Disaggregate Equilibrium Model of the Tax Distortions among Assets, Sectors, and Industries. International Economic Review, 30(2). https://doi.org/10.2307/2526654

A Akerlof, G., & L Yellen, J. (1990). The Fair Wage-Effort Hypothesis. Journal of Economics , CV.

Adelman, I., & Robinson, S. (1988). Macroeconomic adjustment and income distribution. Alternative models applied to two economies. Journal of Development Economics, 29(1). https://doi.org/10.1016/0304-3878(88)90069-7

Adelman, I., & Robinson, S. (1988). Macroeconomic adjustment and income distribution. Alternative models applied to two economies. Journal of Development Economics, 29(1). https://doi.org/10.1016/0304-3878(88)90069-7

Agénor, P. R., & Aizenman, J. (1997). Technological change, relative wages, and unemployment. European Economic Review, 41(2). https://doi.org/10.1016/S0014-2921(96)00020-7

Akerlof, G. A., & Yellen, J. L. (2011). The fair wage-effort hypothesis and unemployment. In Advances in Behavioral Economics. https://doi.org/10.2307/2937787

Ali, M. (2000). Ouverture commerciale et emploi. Un modèle d’équilibre général avec salaires d’efficience appliqué à la Tunisie. Revue Économique, n° 51, 557–569.

de Melo, J., & Robinson, S. (1980). The impact of trade policies on income distribution in a planning model for Colombia. Journal of Policy Modeling, 2(1). https://doi.org/10.1016/0161-8938(80)90019-8

de Melo, J., & Robinson, S. (1980). The impact of trade policies on income distribution in a planning model for Colombia. Journal of Policy Modeling, 2(1). https://doi.org/10.1016/0161-8938(80)90019-8

Fontana, M., & Wood, A. (2000). Modelling the Effects of Trade on Women, at Work and at Home. SSRN Electronic Journal. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.199310

Harris, J. R., & Todaro, M. P. (1970). Migration, Unemployment and Development: A Two-Sector Analysis. American Economic Review, 60.

McMahon, G. (1990). Tariff policy, income distribution, and long-run structural adjustment in a dual economy. A numerical analysis. Journal of Public Economics, 42(1). https://doi.org/10.1016/0047-2727(90)90046-K

Tarp, F., Arndt, C., Jensen, H. T., Robinson, S., & Heltberg, R. (2002). Facing the development challenge in Mozambique: An economywide perspective. Research Report of the International Food Policy Research Institute, 126, 1–189. https://doi.org/10.2499/0896291316rr126

Adams, F. G. (1995). Measuring the impact of AFTA: An application of a linked CGE system. Journal of Policy Modeling, 17(4). https://doi.org/10.1016/0161-8938(94)00035-E

Decaluwé, B., Dissou, Y., & Robichaud, V. (1999). Regionalization and Labour Market Rigidities in Developing Countries: A CGE Analysis of UEMOA. https://ideas.repec.org/cgi-bin/refs.cgi

Clarete, R. L., & Whalley, J. (1988). Interactions between trade policies and domestic distortions in a small open developing country. Journal of International Economics, 24(3–4). https://doi.org/10.1016/0022-1996(88)90042-6

DeMelo, J., & Roland-Holst, D. (1994). Tariffs and Export Subsidies When Domestic Markets are Oligopolistic. In J. Mercenier & T. N. Srinivasan (Eds.), Applied General Equilibrium and Economic Development (p. 191). University of Michigan Press. https://books.google.co.za/books/about/Applied_General_Equilibrium_and_Economic.html?id=iNZoRjCtY6MC&redir_esc=y

de Melo, J. (1988). Computable general equilibrium models for trade policy analysis in developing countries: A survey. Journal of Policy Modeling, 10(4). https://doi.org/10.1016/0161-8938(88)90017-8

Teh, R., & Piermartini, R. (2005). Demystifying modelling methods for trade policy. In WTO Discussion Paper no. 10.

Trela, I., & Whalley, J. (1990). Global Effects of Developed Country Trade Restrictions on Textiles and Apparel. The Economic Journal, 100(403). https://doi.org/10.2307/2233967

Agénor, P. R., & Aizenman, J. (1997). Technological change, relative wages, and unemployment. European Economic Review, 41(2). https://doi.org/10.1016/S0014-2921(96)00020-7

Agénor, P. R., & Santaella, J. A. (1998). Efficiency wages, disinflation and labor mobility. Journal of Economic Dynamics and Control, 22(2). https://doi.org/10.1016/s0165-1889(97)00055-9

Agénor, P.-R., & Aizenman, J. (1996). Trade liberalization and unemployment. The Journal of International Trade & Economic Development, 5(3), 265–286. https://doi.org/10.1080/09638199600000016

Ali, M. (2000). Ouverture commerciale et emploi. Un modèle d’équilibre général avec salaires d’efficience appliqué à la Tunisie. Revue Économique, n° 51, 557–569.

Adelman, I., Hopkins, M. J. D., Robinson, S., Rodgers, G. B., & Wéry, R. (1979). A comparison of two models for income distribution planning. Journal of Policy Modeling, 1(1). https://doi.org/10.1016/0161-8938(79)90043-7

Adelman, I., & Robinson, S. (1988). Macroeconomic adjustment and income distribution. Alternative models applied to two economies. Journal of Development Economics, 29(1). https://doi.org/10.1016/0304-3878(88)90069-7

Akinboade, O. A. (1998). Macroeconomic reform and the poor in the Gambia: a computable general equilibrium analysis. Canadian Journal of Development Studies, 19(1). https://doi.org/10.1080/02255189.1998.9669741

Arndt, C., Jensen, H. T., Robinson, S., & Tarp, F. (2000). Marketing margins and agricultural technology in Mozambique. Journal of Development Studies, 37(1). https://doi.org/10.1080/713600061

Arndt, C., & Tarp, F. (2000). Agricultural technology, risk, and gender: A CGE analysis of Mozambique. World Development, 28(7). https://doi.org/10.1016/S0305-750X(00)00017-6

Bautista, R. M., Thomas, M., Muir-Leresche, K., & Lofgren, H. (2002). Macroeconomic policy reforms and agriculture: Towards equitable growth in Zimbabwe. Research Report of the International Food Policy Research Institute, 128. https://doi.org/10.2499/0896291332rr128

Bautista, R. M., Lofgren, H., & Thomas, M. (1998). Does trade liberalization enhance income growth and equity in Zimbabwe?: the role of complimentary policies (Issue 32). https://econpapers.repec.org/RePEc:fpr:tmddps:32

Bourguignon, F., Branson, W. H., & DeMelo, J. (1989). Macroeconomic Adjustment and Income Distribution: A Macro-Micro Simulation Model (No. 1; OECD Development Centre Working Papers). https://ideas.repec.org/cgi-bin/refs.cgi

de Melo, J., & Robinson, S. (1980). The impact of trade policies on income distribution in a planning model for Colombia. Journal of Policy Modeling, 2(1). https://doi.org/10.1016/0161-8938(80)90019-8

de Melo, J., & Robinson, S. (1982). Trade adjustment policies and income distribution in three archetype developing economies. Journal of Development Economics, 10(1). https://doi.org/10.1016/0304-3878(82)90056-6

De Melo, J., Suwa-Eisenmann, A., & Bourguignon, F. (1991). Modelling the Effects of Adjustment Programs on Income Distribution. World Development, 19, 1527–1544. https://doi.org/10.1016/0305-750X(91)90004-2

McMahon, G. (1990). Tariff policy, income distribution, and long-run structural adjustment in a dual economy. A numerical analysis. Journal of Public Economics, 42(1). https://doi.org/10.1016/0047-2727(90)90046-K

Morrisson, C. (1991). Adjustment, incomes and poverty in Morocco. World Development, 19(11). https://doi.org/10.1016/0305-750X(91)90010-F

Narayana, N. S. S., Parikh, K. S., & Srinivasan, T. N. (1987). Indian agricultural policy: An applied general equilibrium model. Journal of Policy Modeling, 9(4). https://doi.org/10.1016/0161-8938(87)90013-5

Radelet, S. (1993). The Gambia’s economic recovery: Policy reforms, foreign aid, or rain? Journal of Policy Modeling, 15(3), 251–276. https://econpapers.repec.org/RePEc:eee:jpolmo:v:15:y:1993:i:3:p:251-276

Storm, S. (1999). Foodgrain price stabilisation in an open economy: A CGE analysis of variable trade levies for India. Journal of Development Studies, 36(2), 136–159. https://doi.org/10.1080/00220389908422624

Thorbecke, E. (1991). Adjustment, growth and income distribution in Indonesia. World Development, 19(11). https://doi.org/10.1016/0305-750X(91)90008-6

Yeldan, A. E. (1998). On structural sources of the 1994 Turkish crisis: a CGE modelling analysis. International Review of Applied Economics, 12(3). https://doi.org/10.1080/02692179800000015