Gender inequality and women’s economic empowerment

This section on agriculture is further subdivided in sub-sections around key topics and policy debates. 

Section a. provides some key reports and data on issues of gender and agriculture.

Section b. includes papers on a topic which has received a lot of attention in the past decade—whether there are productivity differences between male and female farmers, and what might explain these differences.  Doss (2015) provides a nice overview of these debates. 

Section c. provides references for analyses of key asset differences in agriculture, including some of those highlighted in the productivity debate. 

Section d. includes papers looking at both the way that gender relations in agriculture may affect intra-household bargaining and the converse—how intra-household relations may affect relations in agriculture. 

Finally, section e. includes one paper looking at the important, but understudied, issue of care in rural households.

Reference	Link	Type
FAO. (n.d.) The state of food and agriculture 2010-2011- Women in Agriculture: Closing the gender gap for development - World. (n.d.). FAO.	http://www.fao.org/3/i2050e/i2050e.pdf	Report
World Bank. (2008). Gender in agriculture sourcebook. Agriculture and Rural Development Washington, D.C.: World Bank Group.	http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en /799571468340869508/Gender-in-agriculture-sourcebook	Report

Reference	Link	Type
Baye, K., Choufani, J., Mekonnen, D., Bryan, E., Ringler, C., Griffiths, J., & Davies, E. (2019). Irrigation and Women’s Diet in Ethiopia: A Longitudinal Study. (SSRN Scholarly Paper ID 3456836.) Social Science Research Network.	http://papers.ssrn.com/abstract=3456836	Discussion Paper
Boserup, E. (2011). The conditions of agricultural growth: The economics of agrarian change under population pressure. Transaction Publishers.	https://www.biw.kuleuven.be/aee/clo/ idessa_files/boserup1965.pdf	Book
Croppenstedt, A., Goldstein, M., & Rosas, N. (2013). Gender and agriculture: Inefficiencies, segregation, and low productivity traps. World Bank Research Observer, 28(1), 79–109.	https://doi.org/10.1093/wbro/lks024	Journal Article
Dixon, R. B. (1982). Women in Agriculture: Counting the Labor Force in Developing Countries. Population and Development Review, 8(3), 539–566.	https://doi.org/10.2307/1972379	Journal Article
Doss, C. (2014). Data Needs for Gender Analysis in Agriculture. In A. R. Quisumbing, R. Meinzen-Dick, T. L. Raney, A. Croppenstedt, J. A. Behrman, & A. Peterman (Eds.), Gender in Agriculture: Closing the Knowledge Gap (pp. 55–68). Springer Netherlands.	https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-017-8616-4_3	Book Chapter
Doss, C. (2015). Women and Agricultural Productivity: What Does the Evidence Tell Us? (Yale University Economic Growth Center Discussion Paper No. 1051).	https://ssrn.com/abstract=2682663	Discussion Paper
Doss, C. (2018). Women and agricultural productivity: Reframing the Issues. Development Policy Review, 36(1), 35-50.	https://doi.org/10.1111/dpr.12243	Journal Article
Doss, C., Meinzen-Dick, R., Quisumbing, A., & Theis, S. (2018). Women in agriculture: Four myths. Global Food Security, 16, 69–74.	https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gfs.2017.10.001	Journal Article
Doss, C., & Morris, M. L. (2001). How does gender affect the adoption of agricultural innovations? The case of improved maize technology in Ghana. Agricultural Economics, 25(1), 27–39.	https://doi.org/10.1016/S0169-5150(00)00096-7	Journal Article
Manchón, B. G., & Macleod, M. (2010). Challenging gender inequality in farmers’ organizations in Nicaragua. Gender & Development, 18(3), 373–386	https://doi.org/10.1080/13552074.2010.521984	Journal Article
Menon, N., van der meulen Rodgers, Y., & Kennedy, A. R. (2017). Land Reform and Welfare in Vietnam: Why Gender of the Land-Rights Holder Matters: Land Reform and Welfare in Vietnam. Journal of International Development, 29(4), 454–472.	https://doi.org/10.1002/jid.3203	Journal Article
Peterman, A., Quisumbing, A., Behrman, J., & Nkonya, E. (2011). Understanding the Complexities Surrounding Gender Differences in Agricultural Productivity in Nigeria and Uganda. The Journal of Development Studies, 47(10), 1482–1509.	https://doi.org/10.1080/00220388.2010.536222	Journal Article
Quisumbing, A. R., Sproule, K., Martinez, E. M., & Malapit, H. J. (2020). Women’s empowerment in agriculture and nutritional outcomes: Evidence from six countries in Africa and Asia. International Food Policy Research Institute.	https://doi.org/10.2499/p15738coll2.133732	Discussion Paper
Razavi, S. (2009). Engendering the political economy of agrarian change. The Journal of Peasant Studies, 36(1), 197–226.	https://doi.org/10.1080/03066150902820412	Journal Article
Tsikata, D., & Yaro, J. A. (2014). When a Good Business Model is Not Enough: Land Transactions and Gendered Livelihood Prospects in Rural Ghana. Feminist Economics, 20(1), 202–226.	https://doi.org/10.1080/13545701.2013.866261	Journal Article

Reference	Link	Type
Agarwal, B. (2001). Participatory Exclusions, Community Forestry, and Gender: An Analysis for South Asia and a Conceptual Framework. World Development, 29(10), 1623–1648.	https://doi.org/10.1016/S0305-750X(01)00066-3	Journal Article
Deere, C. D. (2017). Women’s land rights, rural social movements, and the state in the 21st-century Latin American agrarian reforms. Journal of Agrarian Change, 17(2), 258–278.	https://doi.org/10.1111/joac.12208	Journal Article
Deininger, K., Goyal, A., & Nagarajan, H. (2011). Women’s Inheritance Rights and Intergenerational Transmission of Resources in India (SSRN Scholarly Paper ID 2466850). Social Science Research Network.	http://papers.ssrn.com/abstract=2466850	Discussion Paper
Fafchamps, M., & Quisumbing, A. R. (2002). Control and Ownership of Assets Within Rural Ethiopian Households. Journal of Development Studies, 38(6), 47–82.	https://doi.org/10.1080/00220380412331322581	Journal Article
Pellizzoli, R. (2010). ‘Green revolution’ for whom? Women’s access to and use of land in the Mozambique Chókwè irrigation scheme. Review of African Political Economy, 37(124), 213–220	https://doi.org/10.1080/03056244.2010.483896	Journal Article
Rijkers, B., & Costa, R. (2012). Gender and Rural Non-Farm Entrepreneurship. World Development, 40(12), 2411–2426.	https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2012.05.017	Journal Article
Twyman, J., Useche, P., & Deere, C. D. (2015). Gendered Perceptions of Land Ownership and Agricultural Decision-making in Ecuador: Who Are the Farm Managers? Land Economics, 91(3), 479–500.	https://doi.org/10.3368/le.91.3.479	Journal Article

Reference	Link	Type
Alkire, S., Meinzen-Dick, R., Peterman, A., Quisumbing, A., Seymour, G., & Vaz, A. (2013). The Women’s Empowerment in Agriculture Index. World Development, 52, 71–91.	https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2013.06.007	Journal Article
Anderson, S., & Eswaran, M. (2009). What determines female autonomy? Evidence from Bangladesh. Journal of Development Economics, 90(2), 179–191	https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jdeveco.2008.10.004	Journal Article
Garikipati, S. (2008). The Impact of Lending to Women on Household Vulnerability and Women’s Empowerment: Evidence from India. World Development, 36(12), 2620–2642.	https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2007.11.008	Journal Article
Udry, C. (1996). Gender, Agricultural Production, and the Theory of the Household. Journal of Political Economy, 104(5), 1010–1046.	https://doi.org/10.1086/262050	Journal Article

Reference	Link	Type
Donald, A., Vaillant, J., Campos, F., & Cucagna, M. E. (2018). Caring about Carework: Lifting Constraints to the Productivity of Women Farmers in the Democratic Republic of the Congo. World Bank, Washington, DC.	https://openknowledge.worldbank.org /handle/10986/30118	Working Paper

The articles in this section include those that examine the effects of climate change on women, focusing on their greater vulnerability because they rely more on natural resources, have lower access to resources and information, and are inhibited from taking action and participating in household and community decisions, by gender and social norms. Some research also focuses on women as agents of change, while other research focuses on the barriers to adaptation that women face. Huyer and Partey (2020) provides a useful introduction/overview; it is also the introduction to a special issue on Gender Equality in Climate Smart Agriculture (Climate Change). Kristjanson et al. (2017) synthesizes research findings from a CGIAR project on measuring gender and climate change, and reflects on methodological issues. 

Reference	Link	Type
Buckingham, S., & Masson, V. (2017). Understanding climate change through gender relations. Taylor and Francis.	https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315661605	Book
Chanamuto, N., & Hall, S. (2015). Gender equality, resilience to climate change, and the design of livestock projects for rural livelihoods. Gender & Development, 23(3), 515-530.	https://doi.org/10.1080/13552074.2015.1096041	Journal Article
Corno, L., Hildebrandt, N., & Voena, A. (2020). Age of Marriage, Weather Shocks, and the Direction of Marriage Payments. Econometrica, 88(3), 879-915.	https://doi.org/10.3982/ecta15505	Journal Article
Dankelman, I. (2012). Gender and Climate Change. Taylor & Francis.	https://doi.org/10.4324/9781849775274	Book
Denton, F. (2002). Climate change vulnerability, impacts, and adaptation: Why does gender matter? Gender & Development, 10(2), 10-20.	https://doi.org/10.1080/13552070215903	Journal Article
Eastin, J. (2018). Climate change and gender equality in developing states. World Development, 107, 289-305.	https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2018.02.021	Journal Article
Floro, M., Yesuf, M., & Woldesenbet, T. (2019). Gender and Perception of Climate Change in Ethiopia. The International Journal of Climate Change: Impacts and Responses, 11(2), 21-39.	https://doi.org/10.18848/1835-7156/cgp/v11i02/21-39	Journal Article
Gonda, N. (2016). Climate Change, “Technology” and Gender: “Adapting Women” to Climate Change with Cooking Stoves and Water Reservoirs. Gender, Technology and Development, 20(2), 149-168.	https://doi.org/10.1177/0971852416639786	Journal Article
Huyer, S. (2016). Closing the Gender Gap in Agriculture. Gender, Technology and Development, 20(2), 105-116.	https://doi.org/10.1177/0971852416643872	Journal Article
Huyer, S., & Partey, S. (2019). Weathering the storm or storming the norms? Moving gender equality forward in climate-resilient agriculture. Climatic Change, 158(1), 1-12.	https://doi.org/10.1007/s10584-019-02612-5	Journal Article
Jerneck, A. (2018). What about Gender in Climate Change? Twelve Feminist Lessons from Development. Sustainability, 10(3), 627.	https://doi.org/10.3390/su10030627	Journal Article
Kristjanson, P., Bryan, E., Bernier, Q., Twyman, J., Meinzen-Dick, R., & Kieran, C. et al. (2017). Addressing gender in agricultural research for development in the face of a changing climate: where are we and where should we be going? International Journal of Agricultural Sustainability, 15(5), 482-500.	https://doi.org/10.1080/ 14735903.2017.1336411	Journal Article
Meinzen-Dick, R., Kovarik, C., & Quisumbing, A. (2014). Gender and Sustainability. Annual Review of Environment and Resources, 39(1), 29-55.	https://doi.org/10.1146/ annurev-environ-101813-013240	Journal Article
Mittal, S. (2016). Role of Mobile Phone-enabled Climate Information Services in Gender-inclusive Agriculture. Gender, Technology and Development, 20(2), 200-217.	https://doi.org/10.1177/0971852416639772	Journal Article
Murray, U., Gebremedhin, Z., Brychkova, G., & Spillane, C. (2016). Smallholder Farmers and Climate Smart Agriculture: Technology and Labor-productivity Constraints amongst Women Smallholders in Malawi. Gender, Technology and Development, 20(2), 117-148.	https://doi.org/10.1177/0971852416640639	Journal Article
Nelson, V., Meadows, K., Cannon, T., Morton, J., & Martin, A. (2002). Uncertain predictions, invisible impacts, and the need to mainstream gender in climate change adaptations. Gender & Development, 10(2), 51-59.	https://doi.org/10.1080/13552070215911	Journal Article
Ngigi, M., Mueller, U., & Birner, R. (2017). Gender Differences in Climate Change Adaptation Strategies and Participation in Group-based Approaches: An Intra-household Analysis from Rural Kenya. Ecological Economics, 138, 99-108.	https://doi.org/10.1016/ j.ecolecon.2017.03.019	Journal Article
Tsige, M., Synnevåg, G., & Aune, J. (2020). Gendered constraints for adopting climate-smart agriculture amongst smallholder Ethiopian women farmers. Scientific African, 7, e00250	https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sciaf.2019.e00250	Journal Article
Venkatasubramanian, K., & Ramnarain, S. (2018). Gender and Adaptation to Climate Change: Perspectives from a Pastoral Community in Gujarat, India. Development and Change, 49(6), 1580-1604.	https://doi.org/10.1111/dech.12448	Journal Article

Gender-aware analyses of economic crises go back to early critiques of male bias in the structural adjustment programs adopted by many developing countries under the aegis of the World Bank in the 1980s, of which Elson (1991) is a seminal contribution. Most studies under this theme challenge neoclassical economics’ approaches to the impact of austerity, which tend to only take account of the market economy and paid work.  This body of literature  includes theoretical frameworks as well as discussions of the challenges of substantiating empirically hypotheses that involve the unpaid as well as the paid economy. Section a. also lists more recent contributions on the gender impact of the financial crisis and austerity policies of  the early 2010s. A separate sub-section includes a few initial assessments of the gender effects of the Covid-19 pandemic.

Reference	Link	Type
Bargawi, H. and G. Cozzi. (2017). “Engendering Economic Recovery Alternatives to Austerity in Europe.” Feminist Economics 23(4), 225-249.	https://doi.org/10.1080/13545701.2017.1344775	Journal Article
Elson, D. (1991). Male Bias in the Development Process. Manchester University Press	https://www.academia.edu/28088770/ Male_bias_in_the_development_process _Diane_Elson_ed_Manchester_University_Press _Manchester_and_New_York_1991_215_pp	Book
Elson, D. (2010). Gender and the global economic crisis in developing countries: A framework for analysis. Gender & Development, 18(2), 201–212.	https://doi.org/10.1080/13552074.2010.491321	Journal Article
Fukuda-Parr, S., Heintz, J., & Seguino, S. (2013). Critical Perspectives on Financial and Economic Crises: Heterodox Macroeconomics Meets Feminist Economics. Feminist Economics, 19(3), 4–31.	https://doi.org/10.1080/13545701.2013.806990	Journal Article
Hoynes, H., Miller, D., & Schaller, J. (2012). Who Suffers During Recessions? Journal of Economic Perspectives, 26(3), 27-48.	https://doi.org/10.1257/jep.26.3.27	Journal Article
Karamessini, M., & Rubery, J. (2013). Women and Austerity: The Economic Crisis and the Future for Gender Equality. Routledge.	https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203066294	Book
Ortiz, I., & Cummins, M. (2013). Austerity Measures in Developing Countries: Public Expenditure Trends and the Risks to Children and Women. Feminist Economics, 19(3), 55–81.	https://doi.org/10.1080/13545701.2013.791027	Journal Article
Seguino, S. (2010). The global economic crisis, its gender and ethnic implications, and policy responses. Gender & Development, 18(2), 179–199	https://doi.org/10.1080/13552074.2010.491318	Journal Article

The recession caused by the Covid-19 pandemic has been called a she-cession and this is reflected in the emerging literature. Two main strands of research focus on gender-differentiated effects on : (a)  paid work and unemployment, and (b)  unpaid domestic work and careand the division of labor within the household. Other issues covered include social protection and public policy, gender-based violence, and migration  A rich debate is taking place in policy circles (especially within the United Nations)  on what is required  for a gender equitable recovery. Links to a selection of gender and Covid ‘trackers’ and surveys are provided at the end of this section.

Reference	Link	Type
Alon, T., Doepke, M., Olmstead-Rumsey, J., & Tertilt, M. (2020). The impact of COVID-19 on gender equality. (National Bureau of Economic Research Working Paper, 26947).	https://www.nber.org/system/files/ working_papers/w26947/w26947.pdf	Working Paper
Agarwal, B. (2021). Livelihoods in COVID times: Gendered Perils and New Pathways in India. World Development, 139, 105312	https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2020.105312	Journal Article
Cantillon, S., Moore, E., & Teasdale, N. (2021). COVID-19 and the Pivotal role of Grandparents: Childcare and income Support in the UK and South Africa. Feminist Economics, 27(1-2), 188-202.	https://doi.org/10.1080/13545701.2020.1860246	Journal Article
Dang, H., & Viet Nguyen, C. (2021). Gender inequality during the COVID-19 pandemic: Income, expenditure, savings, and job loss. World Development, 140, 105296.	https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2020.105296	Journal Article
Desai, S., Deshmukh, N., & Pramanik, S. (2021). Precarity in a Time of Uncertainty: Gendered Employment Patterns during the Covid-19 Lockdown in India. Feminist Economics, 27(1-2), 152-172.	https://doi.org/10.1080/13545701.2021.1876903	Journal Article
Esquivel, V. (2020, August 18). Build back better means build back fairer:  Bringing gender equality to the core of employment recovery. Geneva: ILO	http://www.ilo.org/employment/ Informationresources/covid-19/other/WCMS_753461/lang--        index.htm	Podcast
Evans, David (2020). How will Covid-19 affect women and girls in low and middle-income countries?	https://research.american.edu/careworkeconomy/ blog/2020/05/26/how-will-covid-19-affect-women-and-girls-in-low-and-middle-income-countries/	Blog
Farré, L., Fawaz, Y., González, L., & Graves, J. (2020). How the COVID-19 Lockdown Affected Gender Inequality in Paid and Unpaid Work in Spain. (IZA Discussion Paper, 13434). Retrieved 12 June 2021	https://covid-19.iza.org/publications/dp13434/	Working Paper
Fontana, M. (2021). Assessing the gendered employment impacts of COVID-19 and supporting a gender-responsive recovery. A country-level policy tool. UN Women and ILO.	https://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---ed_emp/documents/publication/wcms_778847.pdf	Policy tool
Ham, S. (2021). Explaining Gender Gaps in the South Korean Labor Market during the COVID-19 Pandemic. Feminist Economics, 27(1-2), 133-151.	https://doi.org/10.1080/13545701.2021.1876902	Journal Article
Heintz, J., Staab, S., & Turquet, L. (2021). Don’t Let Another Crisis Go to Waste: The COVID-19 Pandemic and the Imperative for a Paradigm shift. Feminist Economics, 1–16.	https://doi.org/10.1080/13545701.2020.1867762	Journal Article
Hupkau, C., & Petrongolo, B. (2020). COVID-19 and Gender Gaps: Latest Evidence and Lessons from The UK. Retrieved 12 June 2021.	https://voxeu.org/article/covid-19-and-gender-gaps-latest-evidence-and-lessons-uk	Column /blog
İlkkaracan, İ., & Memiş, E. (2021). Transformations in the Gender Gaps in Paid and Unpaid Work during the COVID-19 Pandemic: Findings from Turkey. Feminist Economics, 27(1-2), 288-309.	https://doi.org/10.1080/13545701.2020.1849764	Journal Article
Kabeer, N., Razavi, S., & van der Meulen Rodgers, Y. (2021). Feminist Economic Perspectives on the COVID-19 Pandemic. Feminist Economics, 27(1-2), 1-29	https://doi.org/10.1080/13545701.2021.1876906	Journal Article
Meekes, J., Hassink, W., & Kalb, G. (2020). Essential Work and Emergency Childcare: Identifying Gender Differences in COVID-19 Effects on Labour Demand and Supply. SSRN Electronic Journal.	https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3727684	Journal Article
O’Donnell, Megan (2020). Playing the long game: How a gender lens can mitigate harm caused by pandemics.	https://research.american.edu/careworkeconomy /blog/2020/05/19/playing-the-long-game-how-a-gender-lens-can-mitigate-harm-caused-by-pandemics/	Blog
Perri, M., Metheny, N., Matheson, F., Potvin, K., & O’Campo, P. (2021). Finding opportunity in the COVID-19 crisis: prioritizing gender in the design of social protection policies. Health Promotion International.	https://doi.org/10.1093/heapro/daab045	Journal Article
Profeta, P. (2020). Gender Equality and Public Policy during COVID-19. Cesifo Economic Studies, 66(4), 365-375.	https://doi.org/10.1093/cesifo/ifaa018	Journal Article
Rahman, H., Matin, I., Banks, N., & Hulme, D. (2021). Finding out fast about the impact of Covid-19: The need for policy-relevant methodological innovation. World Development, 140, 105380.	https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2020.105380	Journal Article
Seck, P., Encarnacion, J., Tinonin, C., & Duerto-Valero, S. (2021). Gendered Impacts of COVID-19 in Asia and the Pacific: Early Evidence on Deepening Socioeconomic Inequalities in Paid and Unpaid Work. Feminist Economics, 27(1-2), 117-132.	https://doi.org/10.1080/13545701.2021.1876905	Journal Article
Seiz, M. (2020). Equality in Confinement: Nonnormative Divisions of Labor in Spanish Dual-Earner Families During the Covid-19 Lockdown. Feminist Economics, 27(1-2), 345-361.	https://doi.org/10.1080/13545701.2020.1829674	Journal Article
Sevilla, A., & Smith, S. (2020). Baby steps: the gender division of childcare during the COVID-19 pandemic. Oxford Review of Economic Policy, 36 (Supplement_1), S169-S186.	https://doi.org/10.1093/oxrep/graa027	Journal Article
World Bank (2020). Expert Answers: Why are Women and Girls Uniquely Threatened by the Coronavirus?	https://www.worldbank.org/en/news/video/ 2020/05/22/why-are-women-and-girls-threatened-by-coronavirus?cid=ECR_TT_wblive_EN_EXT	Video Interview
Yueping, S., Hantao, W., Xiao-yuan, D., & Zhili, W. (2021). To Return or Stay? The Gendered Impact of the COVID-19 Pandemic on Migrant Workers in China. Feminist Economics, 27(1-2), 236-253.	https://doi.org/10.1080/13545701.2020.1845391	Journal Article
Zamarro, G., & Prados, M. (2021). Gender differences in couples’ division of childcare, work and mental health during COVID-19. Review of Economics of The Household, 19(1), 11-40	https://doi.org/10.1007/s11150-020-09534-7	Journal Article

Reference	Link
GAGE. Covid-19 phone survey. Gender and Adolescence Global Evidence. ODI	https://www.gage.odi.org/publication/covid-19-phone-survey-round-1/
The Gender and COVID-19 project.	https://genderandcovid-19.org/
ILO Monitor: COVID-19 and the world of work (various editions 2020-2021)	http://www.ilo.org/global/topics/coronavirus/ impacts-and-responses/WCMS_767028/lang-- en/index.htm
ILO and UN Women. (2021). Strengthening Gender Measures and Data in the COVID-19 Era: An urgent need for change. ILO.	http://www.ilo.org/stat/Publications/WCMS_774261/ lang-- en/index.htm
Innovations for Poverty Action (IPA).  Young Lives Covid-19 Phone Survey of Adolescents in Ethiopia, India, Peru, and Vietnam.	https://www.poverty-action.org/questionnaire/young-lives-covid-19-phone-survey-adolescents-ethiopia-india-peru-and-vietnam
UN Women Data Hub. Rapid gender assessment surveys on the impacts of COVID-19.	https://data.unwomen.org/publications/guidance-rapid-gender-assessment-surveys-impacts covid-19
UN Women-UNDP. COVID-19 Gender Response Tracker.	https://data.undp.org/gendertracker/

The economics literature on gender and education focuses heavily on what drives differences in household investment in boys and girls, covered here in section b.  A second key focus is on the individual and social impacts of education and educational equality, covered in section c. Section a) includes reports and data.

Reference	Link	Type
Barro, R., & Lee, J. (2013). A new data set of educational attainment in the world, 1950–2010. Journal of Development Economics, 104, 184-198	https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jdeveco.2012.10.001	Dataset
UIL. (2019). Fourth Global Report on Adult Learning and Education	https://uil.unesco.org/adult-education/global-report/fourth-global-report-adult-learning-and-education	Report
UNESCO. (2020). Inclusion and education all means all.	https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/ pf0000373718	Report
World Bank. (2017). Economic impacts of child marriage: Global synthesis report. Economic Impacts of Child Marriage. Washington, D.C.: World Bank Group	http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/ 530891498511398503/Economic-impacts-of-child-marriage-global-synthesis-report	Working Paper
World Bank Group, W. (2017). World Development Report 2018: Learning to Realize Education's Promise. Washington, D.C.: World Bank Group.	https://www.worldbank.org/en/publication/wdr2018	Report

Reference	Link	Type
Afoakwah, C., Deng, X., & Onur, I. (2020). Women’s Bargaining Power and Children’s Schooling Outcomes: Evidence from Ghana. Feminist Economics, 26(3), 1–29	https://doi.org/10.1080/13545701.2019.1707847	Journal Article
Alderman, H., & King, E. M. (1998). Gender differences in parental investment in education. Structural Change and Economic Dynamics, 9(4), 453–468.	https://doi.org/10.1016/S0954-349X(98)00040-X	Journal Article
Ashraf, N., Bau, N., Nunn, N., & Voena, A. (2020). Bride Price and Female Education. Journal of Political Economy, 128(2), 591-641	https://doi.org/10.1086/704572	Journal Article
Aslam, M. (2009). Education Gender Gaps in Pakistan: Is the Labor Market to Blame? Economic Development and Cultural Change, 57(4), 747–784.	https://doi.org/10.1086/598767	Journal Article
Beaman, L., Duflo, E., Pande, R., & Topalova, P. (2012). Female Leadership Raises Aspirations and Educational Attainment for Girls: A Policy Experiment in India. Science, 335(6068), 582-586.	https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1212382	Journal Article
Beegle, K., Dehejia, R., & Gatti, R. (2004). Why Should We Care About Child Labor? The Education, Labor Market, and Health Consequences of Child Labor (No. w10980). National Bureau of Economic Research.	https://doi.org/10.3386/w10980	Working Paper
Behrman, J. R., & Deolalikar, A. B. (1995). Are There Differential Returns to Schooling By Gender? The Case of Indonesian Labour Markets. Oxford Bulletin of Economics and Statistics, 57(1), 97–117.	https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-0084.1995.tb00029.x	Journal Article
Creighton, M., & Park, H. (2010). Closing the Gender Gap: Six Decades of Reform in Mexican Education. Comparative Education Review, 54(4), 513-537.	https://doi.org/10.1086/653702	Journal Article
Duflo, E. (2001). Schooling and Labor Market Consequences of School Construction in Indonesia: Evidence from an Unusual Policy Experiment. American Economic Review, 91(4), 795-813	https://doi.org/10.1257/aer.91.4.795	Journal Article
Gertler, P., & Glewwe, P. (1992). The Willingness to Pay for Education for Daughters in Contrast to Sons: Evidence from Rural Peru. The World Bank Economic Review, 6(1), 171–188.	https://doi.org/10.1093/wber/6.1.171	Journal Article
Glick, P. (2008). What Policies will Reduce Gender Schooling Gaps in Developing Countries: Evidence and Interpretation. World Development, 36(9), 1623–1646	https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2007.09.014	Journal Article
Heath, R., & Mushfiq Mobarak, A. (2015). Manufacturing growth and the lives of Bangladeshi women. Journal of Development Economics, 115, 1-15.	https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jdeveco.2015.01.006	Journal Article
Lucas, A., & Mbiti, I. (2012). Does Free Primary Education Narrow Gender Differences in Schooling? Evidence from Kenya. Journal of African Economies, 21(5), 691-722.	https://doi.org/10.1093/jae/ejs021	Journal Article
Muralidharan, K., & Prakash, N. (2017). Cycling to School: Increasing Secondary School Enrollment for Girls in India. American Economic Journal: Applied Economics, 9(3), 321-350.	https://doi.org/10.1257/app.20160004	Journal Article
Muralidharan, K., & Sheth, K. (2015). Bridging Education Gender Gaps in Developing Countries: The Role of Female Teachers. Journal of Human Resources, 51(2), 269-297.	https://doi.org/10.3368/jhr.51.2.0813-5901r1	Journal Article
Tansel, A. (2002). Determinants of school attainment of boys and girls in Turkey: Individual, household and community factors. Economics of Education Review, 21(5), 455–470	https://doi.org/10.1016/S0272-7757(01)00028-0	Journal Article

Reference	Link	Type
Alan, S., Ertac, S., & Mumcu, I. (2018). Gender Stereotypes in the Classroom and Effects on Achievement. The Review of Economics and Statistics, 100(5), 876-890.	https://doi.org/10.1162/rest_a_00756	Journal Article
Booth, A., Cardona-Sosa, L., & Nolen, P. (2018). Do single-sex classes affect academic achievement? An experiment in a coeducational university. Journal of Public Economics, 168, 109-126.	https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpubeco.2018.08.016	Journal Article
Brenøe, A., & Zölitz, U. (2020). Exposure to More Female Peers Widens the Gender Gap in STEM Participation. Journal of Labor Economics, 38(4), 1009-1054.	https://doi.org/10.1086/706646	Journal Article
Canaan, S., & Mouganie, P. (2021). The Impact of Advisor Gender on Female Students’ STEM Enrollment and Persistence. Journal of Human Resources, 0320-10796R2	https://doi.org/10.3368/jhr.58.4.0320-10796r2	Journal Article
Cools, A., Fernández, R., & Patacchini, E. (2019). Girls, Boys, and High Achievers. (National Bureau of Economic Research Working Paper Series, No. 25763).	https://doi.org/10.3386/w25763	Working Paper
Delaney, J., & Devereux, P. (2021). Gender and Educational Achievement:  Stylized Facts and Causal Evidence. IZA Institute of Labor Economics.	https://www.iza.org/publications/dp/ 14074/gender-and-educational-achievement-stylized-facts-and-causal-evidence	Working Paper
Delavallade, C., Griffith, A., & Thornton, R. (2021). Effects of a Multi-Faceted Education Program on Enrollment, Learning and Gender Equity: Evidence from India. The World Bank Economic Review.	https://doi.org/10.1093/wber/lhaa025	Journal Article
Evans, D., & Yuan, F. (2021). What We Learn about Girls’ Education from Interventions That Do Not Focus on Girls. The World Bank Economic Review.	https://doi.org/10.1093/wber/lhab00k7	Journal Article
Fryer, R., & Levitt, S. (2010). An Empirical Analysis of the Gender Gap in Mathematics. American Economic Journal: Applied Economics, 2(2), 210-240.	https://doi.org/10.1257/app.2.2.210	Journal Article
Gong, J., Lu, Y., & Song, H. (2019). Gender Peer Effects on Students’ Academic and Noncognitive Outcomes: Evidence and Mechanisms. Journal of Human Resources, 0918-9736R2.	https://doi.org/10.3368/jhr.56.3.0918-9736r2	Journal Article
Guiso, L., Monte, F., Sapienza, P., & Zingales, L. (2008). Culture, Gender, and Math. Science, 320(5880), 1164-1165.	https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1154094	Journal Article
Nollenberger, N., Rodríguez-Planas, N., & Sevilla, A. (2016). The Math Gender Gap: The Role of Culture. American Economic Review, 106(5), 257-261.	https://doi.org/10.1257/aer.p20161121	Journal Article

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Carlana, M. (2019). Implicit Stereotypes: Evidence from Teachers’ Gender Bias*. The Quarterly Journal of Economics, 134(3), 1163-1224.	https://doi.org/10.1093/qje/qjz008	Journal Article
Carrell, S., Page, M., & West, J. (2010). Sex and Science: How Professor Gender Perpetuates the Gender Gap*. Quarterly Journal of Economics, 125(3), 1101-1144	https://doi.org/10.1162/qjec.2010.125.3.1101	Journal Article
Gong, J., Lu, Y., & Song, H. (2018). The Effect of Teacher Gender on Students’ Academic and Noncognitive Outcomes. Journal of Labor Economics, 36(3), 743-778	https://doi.org/10.1086/696203	Journal Article

Reference	Link	Type
Dustmann, C., Ku, H., & Kwak, D. (2018). Why Are Single-Sex Schools Successful? Labour Economics, 54, 79-99	https://doi.org/10.1016/j.labeco.2018.06.005	Journal Article
Eisenkopf, G., Hessami, Z., Fischbacher, U., & Ursprung, H. (2015). Academic performance and single-sex schooling: Evidence from a natural experiment in Switzerland. Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization, 115, 123-143.	https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jebo.2014.08.004	Journal Article

Reference	Link	Type
Porter, C., & Serra, D. (2020). Gender Differences in the Choice of Major: The Importance of Female Role Models. American Economic Journal: Applied Economics, 12(3), 226-254.	https://doi.org/10.1257/app.20180426	Journal Article
Sansone, D. (2017). Why does teacher gender matter? Economics of Education Review, 61, 9-18.	https://doi.org/10.1016/j.econedurev.2017.09.004	Journal Article
Schøne, P., Simson, K., & Strøm, M. (2019). Peer gender and educational choices. Empirical Economics, 59(4), 1763-1797	https://doi.org/10.1007/s00181-019-01697-2	Journal Article
Whitmore, D. (2005). Resource and Peer Impacts on Girls' Academic Achievement: Evidence from a Randomized Experiment. American Economic Review, 95(2), 199-203.	https://doi.org/10.1257/000282805774670158	Journal Article
Xu, D., & Li, Q. (2018). Gender achievement gaps among Chinese middle school students and the role of teachers’ gender. Economics of Education Review, 67, 82-93	https://ideas.repec.org/a/eee/ecoedu/ v67y2018icp82-93.html	Journal Article

Reference	Link	Type
Akarçay-Gürbüz, A., & Polat, S. (2017). Schooling Opportunities and Intergenerational Educational Mobility in Turkey: An IV Estimation Using Census Data. The Journal of Development Studies, 53(9), 1396–1413.	https://doi.org/10.1080/00220388.2016.1234038	Journal Article
Amin, V., Lundborg, P., & Rooth, D.-O. (2015). The intergenerational transmission of schooling: Are mothers really less important than fathers? Economics of Education Review, 47, 100–117.	https://doi.org/10.1016/j.econedurev.2015.01.008	Journal Article
Duflo, E., Dupas, P., & Kremer, M. (2015). Education, HIV, and Early Fertility: Experimental Evidence from Kenya. American Economic Review, 105(9), 2757–2797.	https://doi.org/10.1257/aer.20121607	Journal Article
Hill, M. A., & King, E. (1995). Women’s education and economic well-being. Feminist Economics, 1(2), 21–46	https://doi.org/10.1080/714042230	Journal Article
Klasen, S., & Lamanna, F. (2009). The Impact of Gender Inequality in Education and Employment on Economic Growth: New Evidence for a Panel of Countries. Feminist Economics, 15(3), 91–132.	https://doi.org/10.1080/13545700902893106	Journal Article
Malhotra, A., & Mather, M. (1997). Do Schooling and Work Empower Women in Developing Countries? Gender and Domestic Decisions in Sri Lanka. Sociological Forum, 12(4), 599–630.	https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1022126824127	Journal Article
Sandner, M., & Jungmann, T. (2017). Gender-specific effects of early childhood intervention: Evidence from a randomized controlled trial. Labour Economics, 45, 59-78.	https://doi.org/10.1016/j.labeco.2016.11.006	Journal Article

This section on Entrepreneurship and Financial Inclusion is further subdivided into sub-sections around key issues. The readings in the general section include overview articles and reports that provide useful introductory reading. Data sources highlight the nature of the gender gap in entrepreneurship. Key debates in the entrepreneurship literature include the gender gap in entrepreneurship – is it due to characteristics or discrimination? What role do personality differences play? Are women discriminated against in access to capital and credit? How do gender roles determine women’s decision to be entrepreneurs and how does it affect enterprise performance? What role can policy play?

Reference	Link	Type
Bosma, N. and Kelly, D. (2018). Global Entrepreneurship Monitor 2018/19. Global Report and Global Entrepreneurship Research Association.	www.gemconsortium.org/file/open?fileId=50213	Report
Development Cooperation Ireland and ILO (2006) Women’s Entrepreneurship Development: Capacity Development Guide.	www.ilo.int/wcmsp5/groups/public/---ed_emp/---emp_ent/documents/publication/wcms_116179.pdf	Report
Global Entrepreneurship and Development Institute and the Dell Women’s Entrepreneur Network. (2014.) The Gender Global Entrepreneurship and Development Index (GEDI) Full Report of Findings 2014.	http://i.dell.com/sites/doccontent/corporate /secure/en/Documents/Gender-GEDI-Full-Report-2014.pdf	Report
OECD (2012). Closing the Gender Gap: Act Now. OECD Publishing, Paris.	https://doi.org/10.1787/9789264179370-en	Report
OECD (2020). Gender Equality: Gender equality in entrepreneurship. OECD Social and Welfare Statistics (database). Retrieved on 01 July 2020.	https://doi.org/10.1787/data-00723-en	Database
World Bank (2021).Women Business and the Law Data for 1971–2020. World Bank Data Catalog. (2020). Retrieved 6 June 2021.	http://pubdocs.worldbank.org/en/ 506381582842200909/WBL50YearPanelData2020.xlsx	Database

Reference	Link	Type
Bruhn, Miriam, 2009. Female-owned firms in Latin America: characteristics, performance, and obstacles to growth (Policy Research Working Paper No. 5122). The World Bank.	http://hdl.handle.net/10986/19961	Working Paper
Coleman, S (2000). Access to capital and terms of credit: a comparison of men- and women- owned small businesses.  Journal of Small Business Management 38(3), 37-52.	www.researchgate.net/publication/ 280017695_Access_to_capital_and_terms_of_credit _A_comparison_of_men-_and_women-owned_small_businesses	Journal Article
Fairlie, R., & Robb, A. (2009). Gender differences in business performance: evidence from the Characteristics of Business Owners survey. Small Business Economics, 33(4), 375-395	https://doi.org/10.1007/s11187-009-9207-5	Journal Article
Gatewood, E., Brush, C., Carter, N., Greene, P., & Hart, M. (2008). Diana: a symbol of women entrepreneurs’ hunt for knowledge, money, and the rewards of entrepreneurship. Small Business Economics, 32(2), 129-144.	https://doi.org/10.1007/s11187-008-9152-8	Journal Article
Gottschalk, S., & Niefert, M. (2013). Gender differences in business success of German start-up firms. International Journal of Entrepreneurship and Small Business, 18(1), 15.	https://doi.org/10.1504/ijesb.2013.050750	Journal Article
Hardy, M., & Kagy, G. (2018). Mind The (Profit) Gap: Why Are Female Enterprise Owners Earning Less than Men? American Economics Review, Papers and Proceedings, 108, 252-255	http://pubdocs.worldbank.org/en/ 506381582842200909/WBL50YearPanelData2020.xlsx	Journal Article
Klapper, L., & Parker, S. (2010). Gender and the Business Environment for New Firm Creation. The World Bank Research Observer, 26(2), 237-257.	https://doi.org/10.1093/wbro/lkp032	Journal Article
Nix, E., Gamberoni, E., & Heath, R. (2015). Bridging the Gender Gap: Identifying What Is Holding Self-employed Women Back in Ghana, Rwanda, Tanzania, and the Republic of Congo. The World Bank Economic Review, 30(3), 501-521.	https://doi.org/10.1093/wber/lhv046	Journal Article
Sabarwal, S. and Terrell, K. (2009). Access to credit and performance of female entrepreneurs in Latin American (summary). Frontiers of Entrepreneurship Research 29:18, Article 6.		Journal Article

Reference	Link	Type
Alesina, A., Lotti, F., & Mistrulli, P. (2013). Do Women Pay More for Credit? Evidence from Italy. Journal Of The European Economic Association, 11, 45-66.	https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1542-4774.2012.01100.x	Journal Article
Borjas, G., & Bronars, S. (1989). Consumer Discrimination and Self-Employment. Journal of Political Economy, 97(3), 581-605.	https://doi.org/10.1086/261617	Journal Article
Bönte, W., & Piegeler, M. (2012). Gender gap in latent and nascent entrepreneurship: driven by competitiveness. Small Business Economics, 41(4), 961-987.	https://doi.org/10.1007/s11187-012-9459-3	Journal Article
Caliendo, M., Fossen, F., & Kritikos, A. (2007). Risk attitudes of nascent entrepreneurs–new evidence from an experimentally validated survey. Small Business Economics, 32(2), 153-167.	https://doi.org/10.1007/s11187-007-9078-6	Journal Article
Caliendo, M., Fossen, F., Kritikos, A., & Wetter, M. (2014). The Gender Gap in Entrepreneurship: Not just a Matter of Personality. Cesifo Economic Studies, 61(1), 202-238.	https://doi.org/10.1093/cesifo/ifu023	Journal Article
Campa, P., Casarico, A., & Profeta, P. (2009). Gender Culture and Gender Gap in Employment. SSRN Electronic Journal.	https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.1499654	Journal Article
Georgellis, Y., & Wall, H. (2005). Gender differences in self‐employment. International Review of Applied Economics, 19(3), 321-342.	https://doi.org/10.1080/02692170500119854	Journal Article
Guzman, J., & Kacperczyk, A. (2018). Gender Gap in Entrepreneurship. SSRN Electronic Journal.	https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3282574	Journal Article
Koellinger, P., Minniti, M., & Schade, C. (2011). Gender Differences in Entrepreneurial Propensity. Oxford Bulletin of Economics and Statistics, 75(2), 213-234.	https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-0084.2011.00689.x	Journal Article
Verheul, I., Thurik, R., Grilo, I., & van der Zwan, P. (2012). Explaining preferences and actual involvement in self-employment: Gender and the entrepreneurial personality. Journal of Economic Psychology, 33(2), 325-341.	https://doi.org/10.1016/j.joep.2011.02.009	Journal Article
Wagner, J. (2006). What a Difference a Y makes-Female and Male Nascent Entrepreneurs in Germany. Small Business Economics, 28(1), 1-21.	https://doi.org/10.1007/s11187-005-0259-x	Journal Article

Reference	Link	Type
Aristei, D., & Gallo, M. (2016). Does gender matter for firms' access to credit? Evidence from international data. Finance Research Letters, 18, 67-75.	https://doi.org/10.1016/j.frl.2016.04.002	Journal Article
Brixiova, Zuzana & Kangoye, Thierry, 2016. Start-Up Capital and Women's Entrepreneurship: Evidence from Swaziland (IZA Discussion Papers 10279) Institute of Labor Economics (IZA).		Working Paper
Fiala, N. (2018). Returns to microcredit, cash grants and training for male and female microentrepreneurs in Uganda. World Development, 105, 189-200.	https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2017.12.027	Journal Article
Galli E., Rossi S.P.S. (2016) Bank Credit Access and Gender Discrimination: Some Stylized Facts. In Rossi S., Malavasi R. (Eds.), Financial Crisis, Bank Behaviour and Credit Crunch. Contributions to Economics. Springer, Cham.		Book Chapter
Giglio, F. (2020). Access to Credit and Women Entrepreneurs:  A Systematic Literature Review. European Research Studies Journal, 23(4), 312-335.	https://doi.org/10.35808/ersj/1686	Journal Article
Mascia, D. and S.P.S. Rossi (2017) Is there a gender effect on the cost of banking? Journal of Financial Stability 31, 136-153.	https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jfs.2017.07.002	Journal Article
Moro, A., Wisniewski, T., & Mantovani, G. (2017). Does a manager's gender matter when accessing credit? Evidence from European data. Journal of Banking & Finance, 80, 119-134.	https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbankfin.2017.04.009	Journal Article
Muravyev, A., Talavera, O., & Schäfer, D. (2009). Entrepreneurs' gender and financial constraints: Evidence from international data. Journal of Comparative Economics, 37(2), 270-286.	https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jce.2008.12.001	Journal Article
Reboul, E., Guérin, I., & Nordman, C. J. (2021). The gender of debt and credit: Insights from rural Tamil Nadu. World Development, 142, 105363.	https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2020.105363	Journal Article
Robb, A., & Coleman, S. (2009). The Impact of Financial Capital on Business Performance: A Comparison of Women- and Men-Owned Firms. SSRN Electronic Journal	https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.1400742	Journal Article
Rosti, L., & Chelli, F. (2005). Gender Discrimination, Entrepreneurial Talent and Self-Employment. Small Business Economics, 24(2), 131-142.	https://doi.org/10.1007/s11187-003-3804-5	Journal Article
Verheul and Thurik (2001) Start-up capital: Does gender matter? (2001). Small Business Economics 16(4):329-45	www.researchgate.net/publication/5158078_Start-Up_Capital_Does_Gender_Matter	Journal Article

Reference	Link	Type
de Mel, S., McKenzie, D., & Woodruff, C. (2008). Returns to Capital in Microenterprises: Evidence from a Field Experiment. Quarterly Journal of Economics, 123(4), 1329-1372.	https://doi.org/10.1162/qjec.2008.123.4.1329	Journal Article
de Mel, S., McKenzie, D., & Woodruff, C. (2009). Are Women More Credit Constrained? Experimental Evidence on Gender and Microenterprise Returns. American Economic Journal: Applied Economics, 1(3), 1-32.	https://doi.org/10.1257/app.1.3.1	Journal Article
Berge, Lars Ivar Oppendal, and Armando Jose Garcia Pires. (2015). Gender, Social Norms, and Entrepreneurship (Arbeidsnotat Working Paper 05/15).		Working Paper
Bernhardt, A., Field, E., Pande, R., & Rigol, N. (2019). Household Matters: Revisiting the Returns to Capital among Female Microentrepreneurs. American Economic Review: Insights, 1(2), 141-160	https://doi.org/10.1257/aeri.20180444	Journal Article
Emran, M., Morshed, A., & Stiglitz, J. (2007). Microfinance and Missing Markets. SSRN Electronic Journal.	https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.1001309	Journal Article

Reference	Link	Type
Babbitt, L., Brown, D., & Mazaheri, N. (2015). Gender, Entrepreneurship, and the Formal–Informal Dilemma: Evidence from Indonesia. World Development, 72, 163-174.	https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2015.02.019	Journal Article
Baughn, C., Chua, B., & Neupert, K. (2006). The Normative Context for Women's Participation in Entrepreneruship: A Multicountry Study. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 30(5), 687-708.	https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-6520.2006.00142.x	Journal Article
Budig, M. (2006). Intersections on the Road to Self-Employment: Gender, Family and Occupational Class. Social Forces, 84(4), 2223-2239.	https://doi.org/10.1353/sof.2006.0082	Journal Article
Delecourt, S., & Fitzpatrick, A. (2021). Childcare Matters: Female Business Owners and the Baby-Profit Gap. Management Science.	https://doi.org/10.1287/mnsc.2021.3976	Journal Article
DeMartino, R., & Barbato, R. (2003). Differences between women and men MBA entrepreneurs: exploring family flexibility and wealth creation as career motivators. Journal of Business Venturing, 18(6), 815-832.	https://doi.org/10.1016/s0883-9026(03)00003-x	Journal Article
Gine, X., & Mansuri, G. (2019). Money or Management? A Field Experiment on Constraints to Entrepreneurship in Rural Pakistan. Economic Development and Cultural Change	https://doi.org/10.1086/707502	Journal Article
Jennings, J., & Brush, C. (2013). Research on Women Entrepreneurs: Challenges to (and from) the Broader Entrepreneurship Literature? The Academy of Management Annals, 7(1), 663-715	https://doi.org/10.1080/19416520.2013.782190	Journal Article
McGowan, P., Redeker, C., Cooper, S., & Greenan, K. (2012). Female entrepreneurship and the management of business and domestic roles: Motivations, expectations and realities. Entrepreneurship & Regional Development, 24(1-2), 53-72	https://doi.org/10.1080/08985626.2012.637351	Journal Article

Reference	Link	Type
Estrin, S., & Mickiewicz, T. (2011). Institutions and female entrepreneurship. Small Business Economics, 37(4), 397-415.	https://doi.org/10.1007/s11187-011-9373-0	Journal Article
Feldmann, M., Lukes, M., & Uhlaner, L. (2020). Disentangling succession and entrepreneurship gender gaps: gender norms, culture, and family. Small Business Economics.	https://doi.org/10.1007/s11187-020-00430-z	Journal Article
Field, E., Jayachandran, S., & Pande, R. (2010). Do Traditional Institutions Constrain Female Entrepreneurship? A Field Experiment on Business Training in India. American Economic Review, 100(2), 125-129.	https://doi.org/10.1257/aer.100.2.125	Journal Article
Hook, J. (2010). Gender Inequality in the Welfare State: Sex Segregation in Housework, 1965–2003. American Journal of Sociology, 115(5), 1480-1523.	https://doi.org/10.1086/651384	Journal Article
Naldi, L., Baù, M., Ahl, H., & Markowska, M. (2019). Gender (in)equality within the household and business start-up among mothers. Small Business Economics, 56(2), 903-918.	https://doi.org/10.1007/s11187-019-00275-1	Journal Article
Neergaard, H., & Thrane, C. (2011). The Nordic Welfare Model: barrier or facilitator of women's entrepreneurship in Denmark? International Journal of Gender and Entrepreneurship, 3(2), 88-104.	https://doi.org/10.1108/17566261111140189	Journal Article
Thébaud, S. (2015). Business as Plan B. Administrative Science Quarterly, 60(4), 671-711.	https://doi.org/10.1177/0001839215591627	Journal Article
Thébaud, S., & Pedulla, D. (2016). Masculinity and the Stalled Revolution. Gender & Society, 30(4), 590-617.	https://doi.org/10.1177/0891243216649946	Journal Article
Wu, J., & Li, Y. (2019). An Exploratory Cross-Country Analysis of Female Entrepreneurial Activity: The Roles of Gendered Institutions. Entrepreneurship Research Journal, 10(3).	https://doi.org/10.1515/erj-2018-0019	Journal Article

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Banerjee, A., Duflo, E., Glennerster, R., & Kinnan, C. (2015). The Miracle of Microfinance? Evidence from a Randomized Evaluation. American Economic Journal: Applied Economics, 7(1), 22-53.	https://doi.org/10.1257/app.20130533	Journal Article
Dupas, P., & Robinson, J. (2013). Savings Constraints and Microenterprise Development: Evidence from a Field Experiment in Kenya. American Economic Journal: Applied Economics, 5(1), 163-192.	https://doi.org/10.1257/app.5.1.163	Journal Article
Floro, M., & Bali Swain, R. (2013). Food Security, Gender, and Occupational Choice among Urban Low-Income Households. World Development, 42, 89-99.	https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2012.08.005	Journal Article
Jayachandran, S. (2020). Microentrepreneurship in Developing Countries. SSRN Electronic Journal.	https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3529754	Journal Article

The impact of infrastructure on gender equality has been studied mainly through its impact on time use and, to a lesser extent, its impact on health.  If we consider social infrastructure, including education and health infrastructure, then gender impacts and implications are much broader.  Section a. provides some guides and examples for analyzing gender-differentiated impacts of infrastructure. Sections b. and c. cover research on infrastructure and time use, and the related issue of work-life balance.  Sections d. and e. include research on gendered impacts of energy and water infrastructure, key issues in many countries.

Reference	Link	Type
African Development Bank.  (2009). Checklist for Gender Mainstreaming in the Infrastructure Sector.	https://ppp.worldbank.org/public-private-partnership/library/checklist-gender-mainstreaming-infrastructure-sector	Report
Ferguson, L., & Harman, S. (2015). Gender and Infrastructure in the World Bank. Development Policy Review, 33(5), 653–671.	https://doi.org/10.1111/dpr.12128	Journal Article
Levin, L., & Faith-Ell, C. (2019). How to Apply Gender Equality Goals in Transport and Infrastructure Planning. In C. L. Scholten & T. Joelsson (Eds.), Integrating Gender into Transport Planning: From One to Many Tracks (pp. 89–118). Springer International Publishing.	https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-05042-9_5	Book Chapter
UN Women (n.d.) Guides on integrating gender into infrastructure development in Asia and the Pacific. (2019). Retrieved April 25, 2021.	https://asiapacific.unwomen.org/en/digital-library/publications/2019/03/guides-on-integrating-gender-into-infrastructure-development	Report

Agénor, P.-R., & Agénor, M. (2014). Infrastructure, women’s time allocation, and economic development. Journal of Economics, 113(1), 1–30. 
https://doi.org/10.1007/s00712-013-0358-0
Type: Journal Article

Chakraborty, L. S. (2010). Public Investment and Unpaid Work in India: Selective Evidence from Time-Use Data. In R. Antonopoulos & I. Hirway (Eds.), Unpaid Work and the Economy: Gender, Time Use and Poverty in Developing Countries (pp. 140–162). Palgrave Macmillan UK. 
https://doi.org/10.1057/9780230250550_6
Type: Book Chapter

Ilahi, N., & Grimard, F. (2000). Public Infrastructure and Private Costs: Water Supply and Time Allocation of Women in Rural Pakistan. Economic Development and Cultural Change, 49(1), 45–75.
https://doi.org/10.1086/452490
Type: Journal Article

Terbish, M., & Floro, M. S. (2016). How does public infrastructure (or lack thereof) affect time use in Mongolia? Asia-Pacific Population Journal, 31(1), 43–62. 
https://doi.org/10.18356/ea68eb4c-en
Type: Journal Article

European Institute for Gender Equality. (2019, December 6). Does public infrastructure support work-life balance? - Gender Equality Index 2019.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uSY-61NSiiU
Type: Video

Baruah, B. (2015). Creating Opportunities for Women in the Renewable Energy Sector: Findings from India. Feminist Economics, 21(2), 53–76.
https://doi.org/10.1080/13545701.2014.990912
Type: Journal Article

Cecelski, E. (2006). From the Millennium Development Goals towards a gender-sensitive energy policy research and practice: Empirical evidence and case studies. Collaborative Research Group on Gender and Energy, Netherlands. 
https://www.empowerwomen.org/en/resources/documents/2013/8/from-the-millennium-development-goals--towards-a-gender-sensitive-energy-policy--research-and-practice---empirical-evidence-and-case-studies?lang=en
Type: Report

Parikh, J. (2011). Hardships and health impacts on women due to traditional cooking fuels: A case study of Himachal Pradesh, India. Energy Policy, 39(12), 7587–7594. 
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2011.05.055
Type: Journal Article

Rewald, R. (2017). Energy and women and girls: Analyzing the needs, uses, and impacts of energy on women and girls in the developing world. Oxfam Research Backgrounder series. 
https://www.oxfamamerica.org/explore/research-publications/energy-women-girls/
Type: Report

Koolwal, G., & van de Walle, D. (2013). Access to Water, Women’s Work, and Child Outcomes. Economic Development and Cultural Change, 61(2), 369–405.
https://doi.org/10.1086/668280
Type: Journal Article

Regmi, S. C., & Fawcett, B. (1999). Integrating gender needs into drinking-water projects in Nepal. Gender & Development, 7(3), 62–72.
https://doi.org/10.1080/741923243
Type: Journal Article

van Koppen, B. (1998). Water rights, gender, and poverty alleviation. Inclusion and exclusion of women and men smallholders in public irrigation infrastructure development. Agriculture and Human Values, 15(4), 361–374.
https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1007537119163
Type: Journal Article

The literature on gender and international trade goes back to the 1980s, when the growth of  export-oriented manufacturing in some countries of the global South significantly increased the demand for female labour. This prompted a lively debate over whether the feminization of the workforce in export-oriented industries constituted a positive outcome or not. Since then, research on the interaction between gender relations and trade relations has expanded to various other dimensions and contexts, but remains dominated by studies on the impact of trade changes on gender gaps in employment and wages (only a fraction of these studies is reported here). Readings listed in this section are  grouped as follows: i. edited books, reports discussing how trade and gender issues should be framed and trade agreements assessed, as well as gender-aware approaches to trade policy; ii. studies examining the impact of gender inequality on trade, and iii. studies examining the impact of trade on gender inequality. The 2007 edited book The Feminist Economics of Trade remains one of the most comprehensive references. Among recent policy reports, differences in perspective might be noted between different international organizations, such as between the WTO and UNECA for example.

Elson, D., Grown, C, & Cagatay, N. (2007). Mainstream, Heterodox, and Feminist Trade Theory. In van Staveren, I., Elson, D., Grown, C., & Cagatay, N (Eds.) The Feminist Economics of Trade (pp. 51–70). Routledge.
Type: Book Chapter

Barrientos, Stephanie. (2020). Building back equitably: Spotlight on women workers in global value chains. Trade for Development News.
https://trade4devnews.enhancedif.org/en/op-ed/building-back-equitably-spotlight-women-workers-global-value-chains
Type: Op-Ed

Fontana, Marzia. (2020). Guidance Note on Data Analysis for Gender and Trade Assessments Gender, Social Inclusion and Trade Working Group. BKP Economic Advisors for UK  Aid.
https://www.bkp-development.com/images/reports/Data_Analysis_for_Gender_and_Trade_Assessments_bkp_final.pdf
Type: Guidance Note

Fontana, Marzia. (2016). Gender Equality in Trade Agreements. European Parliament. Brussels.
https://www.europarl.europa.eu/RegData/etudes/STUD/2016/571388
/IPOL_STU(2016)571388_EN.pdf
Type: Policy Report

Hannah, E., Roberts, A. & S.Trommer. (2021). Towards a feminist global trade politics, Globalizations, 18:1, 70-85.
https://doi.org/10.1080/14747731.2020.1779966
Type: Journal Article

UNCTAD. (2017). Trade and gender toolbox - How will the economic partnership agreement between the European Union and the East African Community affect Kenyan women? UNCTAD. Geneva
https://unctad.org/system/files/official-document/ditc2017d1_en.pdf
Type: Toolkit

van Staveren, I., Elson, D., Grown, C., & Cagatay, N. (Eds.) (2007). The Feminist Economics of Trade. New York: Routledge. 
https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203946077
Type: Book Chapter

Williams, M. (2007). Gender issues in the multilateral trading system. In van Staveren, I., Elson, D., Grown, C., & Cagatay, N. (Eds.) The Feminist Economics of Trade (pp. 295-309). New York: Routledge. 
https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203946077
Type: Book Chapter

World Bank and World Trade Organization. 2020. Women and Trade: The Role of Trade in Promoting Gender Equality. Washington, DC: World Bank.
https://doi.org/10.1596/978-1-4648-1541-6
Type: Policy Report

Blecker, R. A., & Seguino, S. (2002). Macroeconomic Effects of Reducing Gender Wage Inequality in an Export-Oriented, Semi-Industrialized Economy. Review of Development Economics, 6(1), 103–119.
https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-9361.00144
Type: Journal Article

Darity, W. (1995). The formal structure of a gender-segregated low-income economy. World Development, 23(11), 1963–1968.
https://doi.org/10.1016/0305-750X(95)00082-N
Type: Journal Article

Seguino, S. (2010). Gender, Distribution, and Balance of Payments Constrained Growth in Developing Countries. Review of Political Economy, 22(3), 373–404.
https://doi.org/10.1080/09538259.2010.491285
Type: Journal Article

The list of readings under this section is not meant to be exhaustive. Studies were selected to capture a range of methodologies and measurement choices.

Berik, G., Rodgers, Y. van der M., & Zveglich, J. E. (2004). International Trade and Gender Wage Discrimination: Evidence from East Asia. Review of Development Economics, 8(2), 237–254. 
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9361.2004.00230.x
Type: Journal Article

Bussolo, Maurizio; De Hoyos, Rafael E. (2009). Gender Aspects of the Trade and Poverty Nexus: A Macro-Micro Approach. Equity and Development. Washington, DC: World Bank and Palgrave Macmillan.
https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/handle/10986/13264
Type: Book

Domínguez, E., Icaza, R., Quintero, C., López, S., & Stenman, Å. (2010). Women Workers in the Maquiladoras and the Debate on Global Labor Standards. Feminist Economics, 16(4), 185–209. 
https://doi.org/10.1080/13545701.2010.530603
Type: Journal Article

Elson, D., & Pearson, R. (1981). ‘Nimble Fingers Make Cheap Workers’: An Analysis of Women’s Employment in Third World Export Manufacturing. Feminist Review, 7(1), 87–107. 
https://doi.org/10.1057/fr.1981.6
Type: Journal Article

Fontana, Marzia. (2007). Modeling the effects of trade on women, at work and at home: Comparative perspectives. In The Feminist Economics of Trade (pp. 135–158). New York: Routledge. 
https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203946077-17
Type: Book Chapter

Katz, E. G. (1995). Gender and trade within the household: observations from rural Guatemala. World Development, 23(2), 327–342.
https://doi.org/10.1016/0305-750X(94)00118-I
Type: Journal Article

Kucera, D., Roncolato, L., & von Uexkull, E. (2012). Trade Contraction and Employment in India and South Africa during the Global Crisis. World Development, 40(6), 1122–1134. 
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2011.11.003
Type: Journal Article

Menon, N., & Rodgers, Y. van der M. (2009). International Trade and the Gender Wage Gap: New Evidence from India’s Manufacturing Sector. World Development, 37(5), 965–981.
Type: Journal Article

Rani, U., & Unni, J. (2009). Do Economic Reforms Influence Home-Based Work? Evidence from India. Feminist Economics, 15(3), 191–225.
https://doi.org/10.1080/13545700902835586
Type: Journal Article

Siddiqui, R. (2009). Modeling Gender Effects of Pakistan’s Trade Liberalization. Feminist Economics, 15(3), 287–321.
https://doi.org/10.1080/13545700902964295
Type: Journal Article

Standing, Guy, 1999. Global Feminization Through Flexible Labor: A Theme Revisited. World Development, 27(3), 583-602.
Type: Journal Article

Tejani, S., & Milberg, W. (2016). Global Defeminization? Industrial Upgrading and Manufacturing Employment in Developing Countries. Feminist Economics, 22(2), 24–54. 
https://doi.org/10.1080/13545701.2015.1120880
Type: Journal Article

UNCTAD. (2017). The gender dynamics of inclusion and exclusion: A macro perspective on employment. UNCTAD. Geneva.
https://www.un-ilibrary.org/international-trade-and-finance/trade-and-development-report-2017_1cef4f1d-en
Type: Policy Report

Wamboye, E. F., & Seguino, S. (2015). Gender Effects of Trade Openness in Sub-Saharan Africa. Feminist Economics, 21(3), 82–113.
https://doi.org/10.1080/13545701.2014.927583
Type: Journal Article

The economics literature on intrahousehold relations is now extensive. There is a large literature on how to model intrahousehold decision-making, beginning with Gary Becker’s unitary household model, followed by models of bargaining among household members with different preferences.  This literature includes theory but also empirical work providing evidence for the different approaches.  These are covered in section a. below.  A second major focus of this research has been to analyze factors associated with greater women’s power in household decision making.  Relevant papers are included in section b.  A third literature focuses on the impact of women’s decision-making power on outcomes such as fertility and investments in children.  Papers of this type have been included under the topics related to these outcomes.

Becker, G. S. (1965). A Theory of the Allocation of Time. The Economic Journal, 75(299), 493–517.
https://doi.org/10.2307/2228949
Type: Journal Article

Duflo, E., & Udry, C. (2004). Intrahousehold Resource Allocation in Cote d’Ivoire: Social Norms, Separate Accounts and Consumption Choices (No. w10498). National Bureau of Economic Research.
https://doi.org/10.3386/w10498
Type: Working Paper

Gronau, R. (1976). Leisure, Home Production and Work—The Theory of The Allocation of Time Revisited (No. w0137). National Bureau of Economic Research.
https://doi.org/10.3386/w0137
Type: Working Paper

Hoddinott, J., & Haddad, L. (1995). Does Female Income Share Influence Household Expenditures? Evidence from Côte D’ivoire. Oxford Bulletin of Economics and Statistics, 57(1), 77–96.
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-0084.1995.tb00028.x
Type: Journal Article

Lundberg, S. J., Pollak, R. A., & Wales, T. J. (1997). Do Husbands and Wives Pool Their Resources? Evidence from the United Kingdom Child Benefit. The Journal of Human Resources, 32(3), 463–480.
https://doi.org/10.2307/146179
Type: Journal Article

Lundberg, S., & Pollak, R. A. (1993). Separate Spheres Bargaining and the Marriage Market. Journal of Political Economy, 101(6), 988–1010.
https://doi.org/10.1086/26191
Type: Journal Article

McPeak, J. G. & Doss, C. R. (2005). Are Household Production Decisions Cooperative? Evidence on Pastoral Migration and Milk Sales from Northern Kenya (SSRN Scholarly Paper ID 668401). Social Science Research Network.
http://papers.ssrn.com/abstract=668401
Type: Working Paper

Quisumbing, Agnes R.  & John A. Maluccio. (2003). Intrahousehold Allocation and Gender Relations: New Empirical Evidence from Four Developing Countries. In Quisumbing, A.  & Malucci, J. (Eds.) Household decisions, gender, and development: A synthesis of recent research. IFPRI. 
https://www.ifpri.org/publication/intrahousehold-allocation-and-gender-relations-new-empirical-evidence-four-developing
Type: Book Chapter

Sigle-Rushton, W. (2010). Men’s Unpaid Work and Divorce: Reassessing Specialization and Trade in British Families. Feminist Economics, 16(2), 1–26. 
https://doi.org/10.1080/13545700903448801
Type: Journal Article

Warner, J. M., & Campbell, D. A. (2000). Supply Response in an Agrarian Economy with Non-Symmetric Gender Relations. World Development, 28(7), 1327–1340. 
https://doi.org/10.1016/S0305-750X(00)00015-2
Type: Journal Article

Agarwal, B. (1997). ”Bargaining” and Gender Relations: Within and Beyond the Household. Feminist Economics, 3(1), 1–51.
https://doi.org/10.1080/135457097338799
Type: Journal Article

Bittman, M., England, P., Folbre, N., Sayer, L., & Matheson, G. (2003). When Does Gender Trump Money? Bargaining and Time in Household Work. American Journal of Sociology, 109(1), 186-214+i-ii.
https://doi.org/10.1086/378341
Type: Journal Article

Bonnin, C., & Turner, S. (2014). ‘A good wife stays home’: Gendered negotiations over state agricultural programmes, upland Vietnam. Gender, Place & Culture, 21(10), 1302–1320. 
https://doi.org/10.1080/0966369X.2013.832663
Type: Journal Article

Debnath, S. (2015). The Impact of Household Structure on Female Autonomy in Developing Countries. The Journal of Development Studies, 51(5), 485–502. 
https://doi.org/10.1080/00220388.2014.983909
Type: Journal Article

Field, E., Pande, R., Rigol, N., Schaner, S., & Moore, C. (2019). On Her Own Account: How Strengthening Women’s Financial Control Affects Labor Supply and Gender Norms (SSRN Scholarly Paper ID 3458219). Social Science Research Network. 
http://papers.ssrn.com/abstract=3458219
Type: Working Paper

Hammer, L., & Klugman, J. (2016). Exploring Women’s Agency and Empowerment in Developing Countries: Where do we stand? Feminist Economics, 22(1), 237–263. 
https://doi.org/10.1080/13545701.2015.1091087
Type: Journal Article

Khalil, U., & Mookerjee, S. (2018). Patrilocal Residence and Women’s Social Status: Evidence from South Asia. Economic Development and Cultural Change, 67(2), 401–438. 
https://doi.org/10.1086/697584
Type: Journal Article

Meurs, M., & Ismaylov, R. (2019). Improving Assessments of Gender Bargaining Power: A Case Study from Bangladesh. Feminist Economics, 25(1), 90–118. 
https://doi.org/10.1080/13545701.2018.1546957
Type: Journal Article

Parkman, A. M. (2004). Bargaining Over Housework. The Frustrating Situation of Secondary Wage Earners. American Journal of Economics and Sociology, 63(4), 765–794. 
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1536-7150.2004.00316.x
Type: Journal Article

Klasen, S., & Lahoti, R. (2020). How Serious is the Neglect of Intra-Household Inequality in Multidimensional Poverty and Inequality Analyses? Evidence from India. Review of Income and Wealth, n/a(n/a).
https://doi.org/10.1111/roiw.12491
Type: Journal Article

Gender inequality persists in the labor market and has its origins in the division of labor, and the inequitable division of nonmarket work, in the household. The latter in turn is influenced by social and cultural norms. Motherhood and the relative higher burden of nonmarket work that women have influences labor force participation and leads to occupational segregation. Bias and discrimination in the labor market exist in hiring and in wages. New perspectives on gender bring in the influence of personality, culture and identity on earnings. This section on labor markets is therefore subdivided to into subsections that include determinants of female labor force participation, gender wage gaps, discrimination, motherhood penalty, new perspectives on gender, and the role of work-family policies in promoting gender (in)equality in the labour market.

Azmat, G., & Petrongolo, B. (2014). Gender and the labor market: What have we learned from field and lab experiments? Labour Economics, 30, 32-40. 
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.labeco.2014.06.005
Type: Journal Article

Bertrand, M. (2011). New Perspectives on Gender. In Card, D. & Ashenfelter, O. (Eds.) Handbook of Labor Economics, Vol. 4b. Elsevier.
Type: Chapter in Book

Blau, F. (2012). Gender, Inequality, and Wages. Oxford University Press.
Type: Book

Elson, D. (1999). Labor Markets as Gendered Institutions: Equality, Efficiency and Empowerment Issues. World Development, 27(3), 611–627.
https://doi.org/10.1016/S0305-750X(98)00147-8
Type: Journal Article

Grimshaw, D., Fagan, C., Hebson, G., & Tavora, I. (2017). Making Work More Equal: A New Labour Market Segmentation Approach. Manchester University Press. 
https://oapen.org/search?identifier=634747
Type: Working Paper

Kabeer, N. (2012). Women’s economic empowerment and inclusive growth: Labour markets and enterprise development (Discussion Paper No. 29/12). SOAS, University of London. 
https://www.lse.ac.uk/gender/assets/documents/research/choice-constraints-and-the-gender-dynamics-of-lab/Women%27s-economic-empowerment-and-inclusive-growth.pdf
Type: Discussion Paper

Sevilla, A. (2020). Gender economics: an assessment. Oxford Review of Economic Policy, 36(4), 725-742.
https://doi.org/10.1093/oxrep/graa054
Type: Journal Article

Hyland, M., Djankov, S., & Goldberg, P. (2020). Gendered Laws and Women in the Workforce. SSRN Electronic Journal.
https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3607258
Type: Journal Article (and description of database)

International Labour Organization. (2018). Care work and care jobs for the future of decent work. Geneva: International Labour Organization.  
https://www.ilo.org/global/publications/books/WCMS_633135/lang--en/index.htm
Type: Report

International Labor Organisation. (2018). Global Wage Report 2018/19 What lies behind gender pay gaps. Geneva: International Labour Office.
Type: Report

International Labor Organisation. (2019). A Quantum Leap for Gender Equality: for a better future of work for all. Geneva: International Labour Office
https://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---dgreports/---dcomm/---publ/documents/publication/wcms_674831.pdf
Type: Policy Report

World Bank. (n.d.) Women Business and the Law Data for 1971–2020. World Bank Data Catalog. (2020). Retrieved 6 June 2021, from
http://pubdocs.worldbank.org/en/506381582842200909/WBL50YearPanelData2020.xlsx.
Type: Database

Chicoine, L. (2020). Free Primary Education, Fertility, and Women’s Access to the Labor Market: Evidence from Ethiopia. The World Bank Economic Review 35(2), 480-498.
https://doi.org/10.1093/wber/lhz042
Type: Journal Article

Heath, R., & Jayachandran, S. (2018). The Causes and Consequences of Increased Female Education and Labor Force Participation in Developing Countries. In S.  Averett, L.  Argys & S.  Hoffman (Eds.), The Oxford Handbook of Women and the Economy. Oxford University Press. Retrieved 24 March 2021.
http://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190628963.013.10.
Type: Chapter in Book

Hegewisch, A., & Gornick, J. (2011). The impact of work-family policies on women’s employment: A review of research from OECD countries. Community, Work & Family, 119–138. 
https://doi.org/10.1080/13668803.2011.571395
Type: Journal Article

Jensen, R. (2012). Do Labor Market Opportunities Affect Young Women's Work and Family Decisions? Experimental Evidence from India. The Quarterly Journal of Economics, 127(2), 753-792.
https://doi.org/10.1093/qje/qjs002
Type: Journal Article

Klasen, S. (2019). What Explains Uneven Female Labor Force Participation Levels and Trends in Developing Countries? World Bank Research Observer, 34(2), 161–197. 
https://doi.org/10.1093/wbro/lkz005
Type: Journal Article

Maurer-Fazio, M., Connelly, R., Chen, L., & Tang, L. (2011). Childcare, Eldercare, and Labor Force Participation of Married Women in Urban China, 1982-2000. Journal of Human Resources, 46(2), 261-294.
https://doi.org/10.1353/jhr.2011.0011
Type: Journal Article

Tejani, S., & Milberg, W. (2016). Global Defeminization? Industrial Upgrading and Manufacturing Employment in Developing Countries. Feminist Economics, 22(2), 24–54.
https://doi.org/10.1080/13545701.2015.1120880
Type: Journal Article
 

Arulampalam, W., Booth, A., & Bryan, M. (2007). Is There a Glass Ceiling over Europe? Exploring the Gender Pay Gap across the Wage Distribution. ILR Review, 60(2), 163-186. 
https://doi.org/10.1177/001979390706000201
Type: Journal Article

Blau, F., & Kahn, L. (2003). Understanding International Differences in the Gender Pay Gap. Journal of Labor Economics, 21(1), 106-144.
https://doi.org/10.1086/344125
Type: Journal Article

Blau, F., & Kahn, L. (2017). The Gender Wage Gap: Extent, Trends, and Explanations. Journal of Economic Literature, 55(3), 789-865.
https://doi.org/10.1257/jel.20160995
Type: Journal Article

Carrillo, P., Gandelman, N., & Robano, V. (2014). Sticky floors and glass ceilings in Latin America. The Journal of Economic Inequality, 12(3), 339-361.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s10888-013-9258-3
Type: Journal Article

Christofides, L., Polycarpou, A., & Vrachimis, K. (2013). Gender wage gaps, ‘sticky floors’ and ‘glass ceilings’ in Europe. Labour Economics, 21, 86-102. 
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.labeco.2013.01.003
Type: Journal Article

Cobb-Clark, D., & Tan, M. (2011). Noncognitive skills, occupational attainment, and relative wages. Labour Economics, 18(1), 1-13.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.labeco.2010.07.003
Type: Journal Article

Collischon, M. (2021). Personality traits as a partial explanation for gender wage gaps and glass ceilings. Research In Social Stratification and Mobility, 73, 100596.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rssm.2021.100596
Type: Journal Article

Fang, Z., & Sakellariou, C. (2015). Glass Ceilings versus Sticky Floors: Evidence from Southeast Asia and an International Update. Asian Economic Journal, 29(3), 215-242. 
https://doi.org/10.1111/asej.12056
Type: Journal Article

Gardeazabal, J., & Ugidos, A. (2005). Gender wage discrimination at quantiles. Journal Of Population Economics, 18(1), 165-179.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s00148-003-0172-z
Type: Journal Article

Grove, W., Hussey, A., & Jetter, M. (2011). The Gender Pay Gap Beyond Human Capital: Heterogeneity in Noncognitive Skills and in Labor Market Tastes. Journal of Human Resources, 46(4), 827-874.
https://doi.org/10.1353/jhr.2011.0003
Type: Journal Article

International Labour Organization (ILO) (2018). Global Wage Report 2018/19: What lies behind gender pay gaps.
http://www.ilo.org/global/publications/books/WCMS_650553/lang--en/index.htm
Type: Report

Karamessini, M., & Ioakimoglou, E. (2007). Wage determination and the gender pay gap: A feminist political economy analysis and decomposition. Feminist Economics, 13(1), 31–66. 
https://doi.org/10.1080/13545700601075088
Type: Journal Article

King, E.M., & Gunewardena, D. (2022). Human Capital and Gender Inequality in Middle-Income Countries: Schooling, Learning and Socioemotional Skills in the Labour Market (1st ed.). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003171652

Kunze, A. (2017). The Gender Wage Gap in Developed Countries. SSRN Electronic Journal.
https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.2989616
Type: Journal Article

Ñopo, H., Daza, N., & Ramos, J. (2011). Gender Earnings Gaps in the World. Washington, D.C.: World Bank.
Type: Journal Article 

Petrongolo, B., & Ronchi, M. (2020). Gender gaps and the Structure of Local Labor Markets. Labour Economics 64,  101819
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.labeco.2020.101819
Type: Journal Article

Semykina, A., & Linz, S. (2008). Analyzing the Gender Pay Gap in Transition Economies: How Much does Personality Matter?. SSRN Electronic Journal.
https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.1542202
Type: Journal Article

Weichselbaumer, D., & Winter-Ebmer, R. (2005). A Meta-Analysis of the International Gender Wage Gap. Journal Of Economic Surveys, 19(3), 479-511.
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.0950-0804.2005.00256.x
Type: Journal Article

Borrowman, M., & Klasen, S. (2020). Drivers of Gender Sectoral and Occupational Segregation in Developing Countries. Feminist Economics, 26(2), 62–94. 
https://doi.org/10.1080/13545701.2019.1649708
Type: Journal Article

Della Giusta, M., & Bosworth, S. (2020). Bias and discrimination: what do we know?. Oxford Review of Economic Policy, 36(4), 925-943.
https://doi.org/10.1093/oxrep/graa045
Type: Journal Article

England, P., Budig, M., & Folbre, N. (2002). Wages of Virtue: The Relative Pay of Care Work. Social Problems, 49(4), 455-473.
https://doi.org/10.1525/sp.2002.49.4.455
Type: Journal Article

Goldin, C., & Rouse, C. (2000). Orchestrating Impartiality: The Impact of “Blind” Auditions on Female Musicians. American Economic Review, 90(4), 715-741. 
https://doi.org/10.1257/aer.90.4.715
Type: Journal Article

Hersch, J. (2015). Sexual harassment in the workplace. IZA World of Labor.
https://doi.org/10.15185/izawol.188 
Type: Journal Article

Bertrand, M. (2020). AEA Distinguished Lecture: Gender in the 21^st Century.  
https://www.aeaweb.org/webcasts/2020/aea-distinguished-lecture-gender-in-the-21st-century
Type: Video

Bertrand, M., Kamenica, E., & Pan, J. (2015). Gender Identity and Relative Income within Households. The Quarterly Journal of Economics, 130(2), 571-614. 
https://doi.org/10.1093/qje/qjv001
Type: Journal Article

Collischon, M. (2019). The Returns to Personality Traits Across the Wage Distribution. Labour, 34(1), 48-79.
https://doi.org/10.1111/labr.12165
Topic: Journal Article

Croson, R., & Gneezy, U. (2009). Gender Differences in Preferences. Journal of Economic Literature, 47(2), 448-474.
https://doi.org/10.1257/jel.47.2.448
Type: Journal Article

Fortin, N. (2005). Gender Role Attitudes and the Labour-market Outcomes of Women across OECD Countries. Oxford Review of Economic Policy, 21(3), 416-438. 
https://doi.org/10.1093/oxrep/gri024
Type: Journal Article

Giuliano, P. (2020). Gender and culture. Oxford Review of Economic Policy, 36(4), 944-961. 
https://doi.org/10.1093/oxrep/graa044
Type: Journal Article

Heckman, J., Stixrud, J., & Urzua, S. (2006). The Effects of Cognitive and Noncognitive Abilities on Labor Market Outcomes and Social Behavior. Journal of Labor Economics, 24(3), 411-482.
https://doi.org/10.1086/504455
Type: Journal Article

Mueller, G., & Plug, E. (2006). Estimating the Effect of Personality on Male and Female Earnings. ILR Review, 60(1), 3-22.
https://doi.org/10.1177/001979390606000101
Type: Journal Article

Niederle, M., & Vesterlund, L. (2007). Do Women Shy Away From Competition? Do Men Compete Too Much?. The Quarterly Journal of Economics, 122(3), 1067-1101. 
https://doi.org/10.1162/qjec.122.3.1067
Type: Journal Article

Nyhus, E., & Pons, E. (2012). Personality and the gender wage gap. Applied Economics, 44(1), 105-118.
https://doi.org/10.1080/00036846.2010.500272
Type: Journal Article

Schmitt, D., Realo, A., Voracek, M., & Allik, J. (2008). Why can't a man be more like a woman? Sex differences in Big Five personality traits across 55 cultures. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 94(1), 168-182.
https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.94.1.168
Type: Journal Article

Anderson, D., Binder, M., & Krause, K. (2003). The Motherhood Wage Penalty Revisited: Experience, Heterogeneity, Work Effort, and Work-Schedule Flexibility. Industrial and Labor Relations Review, 56(2), 273.
https://doi.org/10.2307/3590938
Type: Journal Article

Budig, M., & England, P. (2001). The Wage Penalty for Motherhood. American Sociological Review, 66(2), 204.
https://doi.org/10.2307/2657415
Type: Journal Article

De Henau, J., Meulders, D., & O’Dorchai, S.. (2007). Parents’ Care and Career. Comparing Parental Leave Policies across EU-15. In Daniela Del Boca and Cécile Wetzels (Eds.), Social Policies, Labour Markets and Motherhood: a Comparative Analysis of European Countries (pp. 63-106). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Type: Book Chapter

Uribe, A., Vargas, C., & Bustamante, N. (2019). Unintended consequences of maternity leave legislation: The case of Colombia. World Development, 122, 218-232.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2019.05.007
Type: Journal Article

This section on macroeconomic perspective is further subdivided in sub-sections around key topics and policy debates.  Section a. constitutes an introduction and includes a few seminal books by Elson and Folbre from the 1990s, reference to the first two special issues of World Development published on the theme of gender inequality, macroeconomics and trade as well as more recent contributions both by academics and policy organizations. UN Women’s Progress of the World’s Women 2015-2016: Transforming Economies, Realizing Rights is a fine example of a comprehensive policy report combining a robust rights-based economic framework with a wealth of empirical evidence and useful gender statistics.

Çağatay, N., Elson, D., & Grown, C. (1995). Introduction. Special Issue on Gender, Adjustment and Macroeconomics. World Development, 23(11), 1827–1836.
https://doi.org/10.1016/0305-750X(95)90003-J
Type: Journal Article

Grown, C., Elson, D., & Cagatay, N. (2000). Introduction. Special Issue on Growth, Trade, Finance, and Gender Inequality. World Development, 28(7), 1145–1156.
https://doi.org/10.1016/S0305-750X(00)00032-2
Type: Journal Article

Folbre, N. (1994). Who Pays for the Kids? Gender and the Structures of Constraint. Routledge. 
https://www.routledge.com/Who-Pays-for-the-Kids-Gender-and-the-Structures-of-Constraint/Folbre/p/book/9780415075657
Type: Book

Elson, D. (1991). Male Bias in the Development Process. Manchester University Press
Type: Book

Elson, D. (1998). ‘The Economic, the Political and the Domestic: Businesses, States and Households in the Organization of Production’, New Political Economy, 3(2): 189-208
Type: Journal Article

Elson, D., & Cagatay, N. (2000). The Social Content of Macroeconomic Policies. World Development, 28(7), 1347–1364.
https://doi.org/10.1016/S0305-750X(00)00021-8
Type: Journal Article

Ertürk, K., & Çağatay, N. (1995). Macroeconomic consequences of cyclical and secular changes in feminization: An experiment at gendered macromodeling. World Development, 23(11), 1969–1977.
https://doi.org/10.1016/0305-750X(95)00090-Y
Type: Journal Article

Heintz, J. (2019). Public Investments and Human Investments: Rethinking Macroeconomic Relationships from a Gender Perspective. In D. Elson & A. Seth (Eds.), Gender equality and inclusive growth: Economic policies to achieve sustainable development. UN Women. 
http://www.unwomen.org/digital-library/publications/2019/01/gender-equality-and-inclusive-growth
Type: Book Chapter

Himmelweit, S. (2002). Making Visible the Hidden Economy: The Case for Gender-Impact Analysis of Economic Policy. Feminist Economics, 8(1), 49–70. 
https://doi.org/10.1080/13545700110104864
Type: Journal Article

Seguino, S. (2019). Macroeconomic policy tools to finance gender equality. Development Policy Review, 37(4), 504–525.
https://doi.org/10.1111/dpr.12396
Type: Journal Article

Seguino, S. (2020). Engendering Macroeconomic Theory and Policy. Feminist Economics, 26(2), 27–61.
https://doi.org/10.1080/13545701.2019.1609691
Type: Journal Article

UN Women. (2015). Progress of the World’s Women 2015-2016: Transforming Economies, Realizing Rights. United Nations.
https://doi.org/10.18356/2d5f74e3-en
Type: Policy Report

The literature on gender equality and economic growth is rich. It includes a range of theoretical approaches as well as empirical studies that variously examine how different measures of gender inequalities relate to economic growth. Only a small selection of contributions is listed here in section b. Section b. includes examples of (mostly) neoclassical growth models which focus on negative effects that gender gaps in education, health and/or employment may have on economic growth, most notably Klasen. It also includes examples of heterodox approaches to growth which put greater emphasis on the interaction of gender job segregation, gender wage inequality, and the structure of production, such as Seguino. Braunstein and Walters are examples of theoretical contributions that extend consideration to the role of unpaid care for economic growth.  Other papers such as Kabeer&Natali and Esquivel are literature reviews/think pieces.

 

Agénor, P.-R., & Canuto, O. (2010). On Gender and Growth: The Role of Intergenerational Health Externalities and Women’s Occupational Constraints (No. 5492; Policy Research Working Paper, p. 51). The World Bank.
Type: Working paper

Baliamoune‐Lutz, M., & McGillivray, M. (2009). Does Gender Inequality Reduce Growth in Sub-Saharan African and Arab Countries?. African Development Review, 21(2), 224–242. 
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8268.2009.00209.x
Type: Journal Article

Braunstein, E. (2015). Economic growth and social reproduction. UN Women. 
http://www.unwomen.org/digital-library/publications/2015/9/dps-economic-growth-and-social-reproduction
Type: Working paper

Cavalcanti, T., & Tavares, J. (2016). The Output Cost of Gender Discrimination: A Model‐based Macroeconomics Estimate. The Economic Journal, 126(590), 109–134. 
https://doi.org/10.1111/ecoj.12303
Type: Journal Article

Duvvury, N., Callan, A., Carney, P., & Raghavendra, S. (2013). Intimate partner violence: Economic costs and implications for growth and development (Working Paper 82532; Women’s Voice, Agency, and Participation Research Series 2013, No. 3). The World Bank.
http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/412091468337843649/Intimate-partner-violence-economic-costs-and-implications-for-growth-and-development
Type: Working paper

Elson, D., Seth, A., & UN Women. (2019). Gender equality and inclusive growth: Economic policies to achieve sustainable development.
https://www.un-ilibrary.org/women-and-gender-issues/gender-equality-and-inclusive-growth_99c72bc4-en
Type: Book

Esquivel, V. (2017). Efficiency and gender equality in growth theory: Simply add-ons? Canadian Journal of Development Studies / Revue Canadienne d’études Du Développement, 38(4), 547–552.
https://doi.org/10.1080/02255189.2017.1377061
Type: Journal Article

Kabeer, N., & Natali, L. (2013). Gender equality and economic growth is there a win-win? IDS.
http://www.ids.ac.uk/files/dmfile/Wp417.pdf
Type: Working paper

Klasen, S. (2018). The Impact of Gender Inequality on Economic Performance in Developing Countries. Annual Review of Resource Economics, 10(1), 279–298. 
https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-resource-100517-023429
Type: Journal Article

Klasen, S., & Lamanna, F. (2009). The Impact of Gender Inequality in Education and Employment on Economic Growth: New Evidence for a Panel of Countries. Feminist Economics, 15(3), 91–132.
https://doi.org/10.1080/13545700902893106
Type: Journal Article

Seguino, S. (2000). Gender Inequality and Economic Growth: A Cross-Country Analysis. World Development, 28(7), 1211–1230.
https://doi.org/10.1016/S0305-750X(00)00018-8
Type: Journal Article

Seguino, S. (2010). Gender, Distribution, and Balance of Payments Constrained Growth in Developing Countries. Review of Political Economy, 22(3), 373–404. 
https://doi.org/10.1080/09538259.2010.491285
Type: Journal Article

Seguino, S., & Were, M. (2014). Gender, Development and Economic Growth in Sub-Saharan Africa. Journal of African Economies, 23(suppl_1), i18–i61.
https://doi.org/10.1093/jae/ejt024
Type: Journal Article

Walters, B. (1995). Engendering macroeconomics: A reconsideration of growth theory. World Development, 23(11), 1869–1880.
https://doi.org/10.1016/0305-750X(95)00083-O
Type: Journal Article

Antonopoulos, R. (2009). The unpaid care work: Paid work connection. (ILO Working Papers No. 994274043402676). International Labour Organization. 
https://ideas.repec.org/p/ilo/ilowps/994274043402676.html
Type: Working paper

Braunstein, E., Staveren, I. van, & Tavani, D. (2011). Embedding Care and Unpaid Work in Macroeconomic Modeling: A Structuralist Approach. Feminist Economics, 17(4), 5–31. 
https://doi.org/10.1080/13545701.2011.602354
Type: Journal Article

Esquivel, V. (2017). The rights-based approach to care policies: Latin American experience. International Social Security Review, 70(4), 87-103.
https://doi.org/10.1111/issr.12154
Type: Journal Article

Floro, M. (2021). Time Allocation and Time Use Surveys. In Berik, G. & Kongar, E. (Eds.) The Routledge Handbook of Feminist Economics (pp. 148-156). Routledge.
Type: Book Chapter

Floro, M., & Komatsu, H. (2011). Gender and Work in South Africa: What Can Time-Use Data Reveal? Feminist Economics, 17(4), 33-66.
https://doi.org/10.1080/13545701.2011.614954
Type: Journal Article

Folbre, N. (2006). Measuring Care: Gender, Empowerment, and the Care Economy. Journal of Human Development, 7(2), 183-199.
https://doi.org/10.1080/14649880600768512
Type: Journal Article

Fontana, M., & Elson, D. (2014). Public policies on water provision and early childhood education and care (ECEC): Do they reduce and redistribute unpaid work? Gender & Development, 22(3), 459–474.
https://doi.org/10.1080/13552074.2014.963320
Type: Journal Article

Hamermesh, D. (2015). What's To Know About Time Use? Journal of Economic Surveys, 30(1), 198-203.
https://doi.org/10.1111/joes.12107
Type: Journal Article

Hirway, I. (2015). Unpaid work and the economy: linkages and their implications. Indian Journal Of Labour Economics, 58(1), 1-21.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s41027-015-0010-3
Type: Journal Article

Ilkkaracan, I. (2017). Unpaid work in macroeconomics: A stocktaking exercise. In Connelly, R., & Kongar, E. (Eds.). (2017). Gender and Time Use in a Global Context: The Economics of Employment and Unpaid Labor. Palgrave Macmillan US.
https://doi.org/10.1057/978-1-137-56837-3
Type: Book chapter

International Labour Organization (ILO) (2018). Care work and care jobs for the future of decent work. Geneva: International Labour Organization.
Type: Policy report

Maurer-Fazio, M., Connelly, R., Chen, L., & Tang, L. (2011). Childcare, Eldercare, and Labor Force Participation of Married Women in Urban China, 1982-2000. Journal of Human Resources, 46(2), 261-294.
https://doi.org/10.1353/jhr.2011.0011
Type: Journal Article

Oxfam International. (2020). Time to care Unpaid and underpaid care work and the global inequality crisis. Oxford: Oxfam International. Retrieved from
https://www.oxfam.org/en/research/time-care
Type: Report

This section lists selected readings on fiscal policies and is organized around three main themes: i. public spending for gender equality, with emphasis on investment in care-related infrastructure, i. gender and taxation and iii. gender responsive budgeting. 

 

i) Public spending on social and physical infrastructure

This section includes policy-oriented readings as well as a few recent modelling efforts illustrating the benefits of greater investment in care provision.

De Henau, J., Himmelweit, S. and Perrons, D.(2017). Investing in the Care Economy – Simulating employment effects by gender in countries in emerging economies. International Trade Union Confederation.  
http://www.ituc-csi.org/IMG/pdf/care_economy_2_en_
Type: Policy Report

Fontana, M., & Elson, D. (2014). Public policies on water provision and early childhood education and care (ECEC): Do they reduce and redistribute unpaid work? Gender & Development, 22(3), 459–474.
https://doi.org/10.1080/13552074.2014.963320
Type: Journal Article

Heintz, J. (2019). Public Investments and Human Investments: Rethinking Macroeconomic Relationships from a Gender Perspective. In D. Elson & A. Seth (Eds.), Gender equality and inclusive growth: Economic policies to achieve sustainable development (pp. 107–122). UN Women.
http://www.unwomen.org/digital-library/publications/2019/01/gender-equality-and-inclusive-growth
Type: Book Chapter

Ikkarakan, I. (2021). A guide to Public Investments in the Care Economy. Policy Tool for estimating care deficits, investment costs and economic returns. Joint Programme on Promoting Decent Employment for Women through Inclusive Growth Policies and Investments in Care. UN Women and ILO.
https://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---ed_emp/documents/publication/wcms_767029.pdf
Type: Policy Tool

International Labour Organization (ILO) (2018). Care work and care jobs for the future of decent work. Geneva: International Labour Organization.
Type: Policy report

Kim, K., Ilkkaracan, I. and Kaya, T (2019). Investing in Social Care Infrastructure and Employment Generation. A Distributional Analysis of the Care Economy in Turkey. Journal of Policy Modelling, Vol. 41(6), pp: 1210-1229. 
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0161893819300614?via%3Dihub
Type: Journal Article

Ortiz, I., & Cummins, M. (2013). Austerity Measures in Developing Countries: Public Expenditure Trends and the Risks to Children and Women. Feminist Economics, 19(3), 55–81. 
https://doi.org/10.1080/13545701.2013.791027
Type: Journal Article

Rodgers, Y. van der M., & Zveglich, Jr., J. E. (2021). Gender Differences in Access to Health Care Among the Elderly: Evidence from Southeast Asia. Asian Development Bank. 
https://doi.org/10.22617/WPS210047-2
Type: Working Paper

Sully, E., Biddlecom, A., Darroch, J. E., Riley, T., Ashford, L. S., Lince-Deroche, N., Firestein, L., & Murro, R. (2020). Adding It Up: Investing in Sexual and Reproductive Health 2019. 
https://doi.org/10.1363/2020.31637
Type: Report

UN Women. (2019). Investing in Free Universal Childcare in South Africa, Turkey and Uruguay: A Comparative Analysis of Costs, Short-Term Employment Effects and Fiscal Revenue. United Nations.
https://doi.org/10.18356/517c6117-en
Type: Policy Report

UN Women. (2015). Progress of the World’s Women 2015-2016: Transforming Economies, Realizing Rights. Chapter 3. United Nations.
https://doi.org/10.18356/2d5f74e3-en
Type: Report Chapter

 

ii)  Taxation

ActionAid. (2018). Short-Changed: How the IMF’s tax policies are failing women. ActionAid International.
https://actionaid.org/publications/2018/short-changed-how-imfs-tax-policies-are-failing-women
Type: Policy Brief

Casale, D. M. (2012). Indirect Taxation and Gender Equity: Evidence from South Africa. Feminist Economics, 18(3), 25–54.
https://doi.org/10.1080/13545701.2012.716907
Type: Journal Article

Grown, C., & Valodia, I. (2010). Taxation and Gender Equity: An Eight-country Study of the Gendered Impact of Direct and Indirect Taxes. IDRC Books / Les Éditions du CRDI.
Type: Book

Lahey, C. (2018). Gender Taxation and Equality in Developing Countries. UN Women. 
https://gender-financing.unwomen.org/en/resources/g/e/n/gender-and-taxation-discussion-paper
Type: Discussion Paper

Sharpe, R. (2016). Making Tax Work for Women’s Rights. ActionAid International.
https://actionaid.org/publications/2016/making-tax-work-womens-rights
Type: Policy Report
 

iii) Gender responsive budgeting

Gender responsive budgeting means the design and implementation of government budgets in ways that support gender equality, looking at overall fiscal policy as well as individual public spending programmes and/or taxes. Since the 1990s the idea of gender budgeting has been widely promoted by international organizations and NGOs. Many governments claim to have adopted gender budgeting, but what they mean by this varies greatly. Feminist economists have contributed to gender budgeting by developing tools for analysis, advising officials and collaborating with NGOs. The list of readings in this section includes a mix of this work, ranging from toolkits, empirical assessments and reflections on policy processes.

Austen, S., Costa, M., Sharp, R., & Elson, D. (2013). Expenditure Incidence Analysis: A Gender-Responsive Budgeting Tool for Educational Expenditure in Timor-Leste? Feminist Economics, 19(4), 1–24.
https://doi.org/10.1080/13545701.2013.830187
Type: Journal Article

Budlender, D., & Commonwealth Secretariat (Eds.). (2002). Gender budgets make cents: Understanding gender responsive budgets. Gender Affairs Department, Commonwealth Secretariat.
Type: Guide Book

Budlender, D. (2006). Expectations versus Realities in Gender-responsive Budget Initiatives. In S. Razavi & S. Hassim (Eds.), Gender and Social Policy in a Global Context (pp. 322–339). Palgrave Macmillan UK.
https://doi.org/10.1057/9780230625280_15
Type: Book chapter

Burn, N. (2017). Gender-Responsive Budgeting in Africa: Chequered Trajectories, Enduring Pathways.
https://doi.org/10.1057/978-1-137-46101-8_4
Type: Discussion Paper

Elson, D. (2006). Budgeting for women’s rights: Monitoring government budgets for compliance with CEDAW. United Nations Development Fund for Women.
Type: Policy Report

Sharp, R., & Broomhill, R. (2002). Budgeting for Equality: The Australian Experience. Feminist Economics, 8(1), 25–47.
https://doi.org/10.1080/1354500110110029
Type: Journal Article

Stotsky, J. G. (2016). Gender Budgeting: Fiscal Context and Current Outcomes (IMF Working Paper WP/16/149). Washington DC: IMF.
https://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/wp/2016/wp16149.pdf
Type: Policy Report

UK Women’s Budget Group. (2018). Women Count: A casebook for gender responsive budgeting groups.
https://wbg.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2018/09/final-casebook-for-sharing.pdf
Type: Toolkit

Braunstein, E., & Heintz, J. (2008). Gender bias and central bank policy: Employment and inflation reduction. International Review of Applied Economics, 22(2), 173–186. 
https://doi.org/10.1080/02692170801889643
Type: Journal Article

Epstein, G. (2009). Rethinking monetary and financial policy: Practical suggestions for monitoring financial stability while generating employment and poverty reduction (Employment Policy Department Working Paper No. 37). Geneva: International  Labour Office (ILO) 
http://www.ilo.org/public/english/employment/download/wpaper/wp37.pdf
Type: Discussion Paper

Seguino, S. (2019). Macroeconomic policy tools to finance gender equality. Development Policy Review, 37(4), 504–525.
Type: Journal Article

This section on Gender and Migration is further subdivided into sub-sections around key issues. The readings in the Overviews and Background section provide a good overview of (a) migration theory (b) how gender has been incorporated into international migration theory, and (c) key theoretical and empirical issues involved in the relationship between women and migration. Taking a gendered view of migration involves understanding how the decision to migrate, the migration experience is gendered, and impacts of migration on the left-behind are all gendered. Closely related is the determination of remittance behaviour and its impact on household dynamics. The feminization of migration remains an important issue with overlaps with other sub-topics. An area of more recent fruitful research is the impact of migration on native women in the countries which receive migrants.

Antman, F. (2018). Women and Migration. In S. Averett, L. Argys & S. Hoffman, The Oxford Handbook of Women and the Economy. Retrieved 24 March 2021, from 
https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190628963.013.31.
Type: Chapter in Book

Also available as: Antman, F. (2018). Women and Migration.  (IZA Discussion Papers 11282) Institute of Labor Economics (IZA).
https://ideas.repec.org/p/iza/izadps/dp11282.html
Type: Discussion Paper

Boyd, M. and Greico, E. (2003). Women and Migration: Incorporating Gender into International Migration Theory.
https://www.migrationpolicy.org/article/women-and-migration-incorporating-gender-international-migration-theory/
Type: Feature Article

International Organization for Migration. (2019). Glossary on Migration. International Organization for Migration.
https://www.iom.int/glossary-migration-2019
Type: Glossary of terms

Massey, D., Arango, J., Hugo, G., Kouaouci, A., Pellegrino, A., & Taylor, J. (1993). Theories of International Migration: A Review and Appraisal. Population and Development Review, 19(3), 431.
https://doi.org/10.2307/2938462
Type: Journal Article

Stark, O. (1984). Migration Decision Making: A Review Article. Journal of Development Economics 14: 251-259.
Type: Journal Article

International Organization for Migration. (2020). World Migration Report 2020. Geneva: International Organization for Migration.
https://worldmigrationreport.iom.int/
Type: Report

IOM and UN-INSTRAW. (2007). Survey on Remittances 2007: Gender Perspectives.
Type: Report

ILO. (2015). ILO global estimates on immigrant workers: Results and methodology: Special focus on migrant domestic workers. Geneva. Retrieved from 
http://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---dgreports/---dcomm/documents/publication/wcms_436343.pdf
Type: Report

Agesa, R., & Kim, S. (2001). Rural to Urban Migration as a Household Decision: Evidence from Kenya. Review of Development Economics, 5(1), 60-75.
https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-9361.00107
Type: Journal Article

Cerrutti, M., & Massey, D. (2001). On the auspices of female migration from Mexico to the United States. Demography, 38(2), 187-200.
https://doi.org/10.1353/dem.2001.0013
Type: Journal Article

Docquier, F., Lowell, B., & Marfouk, A. (2009). A Gendered Assessment of Highly Skilled Emigration. Population and Development Review, 35(2), 297-321. 
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1728-4457.2009.00277.x
Type: Journal Article

Donato, K. (2010). U.S. Migration from Latin America: Gendered Patterns and Shifts. The ANNALS of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 630(1), 78-92. 
https://doi.org/10.1177/0002716210368104
Type: Journal Article

Kanaiaupuni, S. (2000). Reframing the Migration Question: An Analysis of Men, Women, and Gender in Mexico. Social Forces, 78(4), 1311.
https://doi.org/10.2307/3006176
Type: Journal Article

Baudassé, T., & Bazillier, R. (2014). Gender inequality and emigration: Push factor or selection process? International Economics, 139, 19-47.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.inteco.2014.03.004
Type: Journal Article

De Giorgi, G., & Pellizzari, M. (2009). Welfare migration in Europe. Labour Economics, 16(4), 353-363.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.labeco.2009.01.005
Type: Journal Article

De Jong, G. (2000). Expectations, gender, and norms in migration decision-making. Population Studies, 54(3), 307-319.
https://doi.org/10.1080/713779089
Type: Journal Article

McKenzie, D., Theoharides, C., & Yang, D. (2014). Distortions in the International Migrant Labor Market: Evidence from Filipino Migration and Wage Responses to Destination Country Economic Shocks. American Economic Journal: Applied Economics, 6(2), 49-75.
https://doi.org/10.1257/app.6.2.49
Type: Journal Article

Holst, E., Schäfer, A., & Schrooten, M. (2012). Gender and Remittances: Evidence from Germany. Feminist Economics, 18(2), 201-229.
https://doi.org/10.1080/13545701.2012.692478
Type: Journal Article

Beine, M., & Salomone, S. (2012). Network Effects in International Migration: Education versus Gender. The Scandinavian Journal of Economics, 115(2), 354-380.
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9442.2012.01733.x
Type: Journal Article

Curran, S., & Rivero-Fuentes, E. (2003). Engendering Migrant Networks: The Case of Mexican Migration. Demography, 40(2), 289.
https://doi.org/10.2307/3180802
Type: Journal Article

Davis, B., & Winters, P. (2001). Gender, Networks and Mexico-US Migration. Journal of Development Studies, 38(2), 1-26.
https://doi.org/10.1080/00220380412331322251
Type: Journal Article

Fawcett, J. (1989). Networks, Linkages, and Migration Systems. International Migration Review, 23(3), 671.
https://doi.org/10.2307/2546434
Type: Journal Article

Munshi, K. (2003). Networks in the Modern Economy: Mexican Migrants in the U. S. Labor Market. The Quarterly Journal of Economics, 118(2), 549-599.
https://doi.org/10.1162/003355303321675455
Type: Journal Article

Stecklov, G., Carletto, C., Azzarri, C., & Davis, B. (2010). Gender and migration from Albania. Demography, 47(4), 935-961.
https://doi.org/10.1007/bf03213734
Type: Journal Article

Blau, F. (2015). Immigrants and gender roles: assimilation vs. culture. IZA Journal of Migration, 4(1).
https://doi.org/10.1186/s40176-015-0048-5
Type: Journal Article

Calderón, V., Gafaro, M., & Ibáñez, A. (2011). Forced Migration, Female Labor Force Participation, and Intra-Household Bargaining: Does Conflict Empower Women? SSRN Electronic Journal.
https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.1917615
Type: Journal Article

He, Q., & Gerber, T. (2019). Origin-Country Culture, Migration Sequencing, and Female Employment: Variations among Immigrant Women in the United States. International Migration Review, 54(1), 233-261.
https://doi.org/10.1177/0197918318821651
Type: Journal Article

Antman, F. (2011). The intergenerational effects of paternal migration on schooling and work: What can we learn from children's time allocations? Journal of Development Economics, 96(2), 200-208.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jdeveco.2010.11.002
Type: Journal Article

Gibson, J., McKenzie, D., & Stillman, S. (2011). The Impacts of International Migration on Remaining Household Members: Omnibus Results from a Migration Lottery Program. Review of Economics and Statistics, 93(4), 1297-1318.
https://doi.org/10.1162/rest_a_00129
Type: Journal Article

McKenzie, D., & Rapoport, H. (2010). Can migration reduce educational attainment? Evidence from Mexico. Journal of Population Economics, 24(4), 1331-1358.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s00148-010-0316-x
Type: Journal Article

Amuedo-Dorantes, C., & Pozo, S. (2006). Migration, Remittances, and Male and Female Employment Patterns. American Economic Review, 96(2), 222-226.
https://doi.org/10.1257/000282806777211946
Type: Journal Article

Chen, J. (2006). Migration and Imperfect Monitoring: Implications for Intra-Household Allocation. American Economic Review, 96(2), 227-231.
https://doi.org/10.1257/000282806777212468
Type: Journal Article

Hanson, Gordon H. (2007). Emigration, Remittances, and Labor Force Participation in Mexico. Integration and Trade Journal, 27: 73-103.
Type: Journal Article

Lokshin, M., & Glinskaya, E. (2009). The Effect of Male Migration on Employment Patterns of Women in Nepal. The World Bank Economic Review, 23(3), 481-507.
https://doi.org/10.1093/wber/lhp011
Type: Journal Article

Mendola, M., & Carletto, C. (2012). Migration and gender differences in the home labour market: Evidence from Albania. Labour Economics, 19(6), 870-880.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.labeco.2012.08.009
Type: Journal Article

Mu, R., & van de Walle, D. (2011). Left behind to farm? Women's labor re-allocation in rural China. Labour Economics, 18, S83-S97.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.labeco.2011.01.009
Type: Journal Article

Acosta, P. (2011). School Attendance, Child Labour, and Remittances from International Migration in El Salvador. Journal of Development Studies, 47(6), 913-936.
https://doi.org/10.1080/00220388.2011.563298
Type: Journal Article

Antman, F. (2011). International Migration and Gender Discrimination among Children Left Behind. American Economic Review, 101(3), 645-649.
https://doi.org/10.1257/aer.101.3.645
Type: Journal Article

Antman, F. (2012). Gender, educational attainment, and the impact of parental migration on children left behind. Journal of Population Economics, 25(4), 1187-1214.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s00148-012-0423-y
Type: Journal Article

Chen, J. (2013). Identifying non-cooperative behavior among spouses: Child outcomes in migrant-sending households. Journal of Development Economics, 100(1), 1-18.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jdeveco.2012.06.006
Type: Journal Article

Démurger, S., & Xu, H. (2015). Left-behind children and return migration in China. IZA Journal of Migration, 4(1).
https://doi.org/10.1186/s40176-015-0035-x
Type: Journal Article

Frisancho Robles, V., & Oropesa, R. (2011). International Migration and the Education of Children: Evidence from Lima, Peru. Population Research and Policy Review, 30(4), 591-618.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s11113-011-9202-9
Type: Journal Article

Giannelli, G., & Mangiavacchi, L. (2010). Children's Schooling and Parental Migration: Empirical Evidence on the ‘Left-behind’ Generation in Albania. Labour, 24, 76-92.
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9914.2010.00504.x
Type: Journal Article

Kuépié, M. (2018). Is International Migration Always Good for Left Behind Households Members? Evidence from Children Education in Cameroon. International Migration, 56(6), 120-135.
https://doi.org/10.1111/imig.12503
Type: Journal Article

Marchetta, F., & Sim, S. (2020). The Effect of Parental Migration on the Schooling of Children Left Behind in Rural Cambodia. SSRN Electronic Journal.
https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3673545
Type: Journal Article

Viet Nguyen, C. (2016). Does parental migration really benefit left-behind children? Comparative evidence from Ethiopia, India, Peru and Vietnam. Social Science & Medicine, 153, 230-239. 
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2016.02.021
Type: Journal Article

Vikram, K. (2021). Fathers’ Migration and Academic Achievement among Left-behind Children in India: Evidence of Continuity and Change in Gender Preferences. International Migration Review, 019791832198927.
https://doi.org/10.1177/0197918321989279
Type: Journal Article

Vogel, A., & Korinek, K. (2012). Passing by the Girls? Remittance Allocation for Educational Expenditures and Social Inequality in Nepal's Households 2003–2004. International Migration Review, 46(1), 61-100.
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1747-7379.2012.00881.x
Type: Journal Article

Apatinga, G., Kyeremeh, E., & Arku, G. (2020). ‘Feminization of migration’: the implications for ‘left-behind’ families in Ghana. Migration and Development, 1-18.
https://doi.org/10.1080/21632324.2019.1703283
Type: Journal Article

Cortes, P. (2015). The Feminization of International Migration and its Effects on the Children Left Behind: Evidence from the Philippines. World Development, 65, 62-78.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2013.10.021
Type: Journal Article

Ehrenreich, B., & Hochschild, A. (2004). Global Woman: Nannies, Maids and Sex. Owl Books.
Type: Book

Holst, E., Schäfer, A., & Schrooten, M. (2012). Gender and Remittances: Evidence from Germany. Feminist Economics, 18(2), 201-229.
https://doi.org/10.1080/13545701.2012.692478
Type: Journal Article

Pfeiffer, Lisa and J. Edward Taylor. 2008. “Gender and the Impacts of International Migration: Evidence from Rural Mexico” in Morrison, A. Schiff, M. & Sjöblom, M. (Eds.) The International Migration of Women (pp.99-123), The World Bank: Washington, D.C.,. Chapter 4.
Type: Book Chapter

Antman, F. (2015). Gender discrimination in the allocation of migrant household resources. Journal of Population Economics, 28(3), 565-592.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s00148-015-0548-x
Type: Journal Article

Chen, J. (2006). Migration and Imperfect Monitoring: Implications for Intra-Household Allocation. American Economic Review, 96(2), 227-231.
https://doi.org/10.1257/000282806777212468
Type: Journal Article

Chen, N., Conconi, P., & Perroni, C. (2006). Does Migration Empower Married Women? SSRN Electronic Journal.
https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.881744
Type: Journal Article

Gubhaju, B., & De Jong, G. (2009). Individual versus Household Migration Decision Rules: Gender and Marital Status Differences in Intentions to Migrate in South Africa. International Migration, 47(1), 31-61.
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2435.2008.00496.x
Type: Journal Article

Hoang, L. (2011). Gender Identity and Agency in Migration Decision-Making: Evidence from Vietnam. Journal Of Ethnic and Migration Studies, 37(9), 1441-1457. 
https://doi.org/10.1080/1369183x.2011.623618
Type: Journal Article

McKenzie, D., & Rapoport, H. (2010). Can migration reduce educational attainment? Evidence from Mexico. Journal of Population Economics, 24(4), 1331-1358. 
https://doi.org/10.1007/s00148-010-0316-x
Type: Journal Article

Cox-Edwards, A., & Rodríguez-Oreggia, E. (2009). Remittances and Labor Force Participation in Mexico: An Analysis Using Propensity Score Matching. World Development, 37(5), 1004-1014.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2008.09.010
Type: Journal Article

de la Brière, B., Sadoulet, E., de Janvry, A., & Lambert, S. (2002). The roles of destination, gender, and household composition in explaining remittances: an analysis for the Dominican Sierra. Journal of Development Economics, 68(2), 309-328.
https://doi.org/10.1016/s0304-3878(02)00015-9
Type: Journal Article

Deere, C., & Alvarado, G. (2016). Asset Accumulation through International Migration: Gender, Remittances, and Decision Making in Ecuador. Latin American Research Review, 51(4), 249-270. https://doi.org/10.1353/lar.2016.0058
Type: Journal Article

Göbel, K. (2013). Remittances, expenditure patterns, and gender: parametric and semiparametric evidence from Ecuador. IZA Journal of Migration, 2(1), 1. 
https://doi.org/10.1186/2193-9039-2-1
Type: Journal Article

Guzmán, Juan Carlos, Andrew R.Morrison, and Mirja Sjöblom. 2008. “The Impact of Remittances and Gender on Household Expenditure Patterns: Evidence from Ghana.” In Morrison, A., Schiff, M., & Sjöblom,M. (Eds.) The International Migration of Women, (pp.-125-52). The World Bank: Washington, D.C.
Type: Book Chapter

Le Goff, M. (2015). Feminization of migration and trends in remittances. IZA World of Labor. 
https://doi.org/10.15185/izawol.220
Type: Journal Article

Lopez-Ekra, S., Aghazarm, C., Kötter, H., & Mollard, B. (2011). The impact of remittances on gender roles and opportunities for children in recipient families: research from the International Organization for Migration. Gender & Development, 19(1), 69-80. 
https://doi.org/10.1080/13552074.2011.554025
Type: Journal Article

Vanwey, L. (2004). Altruistic and contractual remittances between male and female migrants and households in rural Thailand. Demography, 41(4), 739-756. 
https://doi.org/10.1353/dem.2004.0039
Type: Journal Article

Asiedu, E., & Chimbar, N. (2020). Impact of remittances on male and female labor force participation patterns in Africa: Quasi‐experimental evidence from Ghana. Review of Development Economics.
https://doi.org/10.1111/rode.12668
Type: Journal Article

Mansour, W., Chaaban, J., & Litchfield, J. (2011). The Impact of Migrant Remittances on School Attendance and Education Attainment: Evidence from Jordan. International Migration Review, 45(4), 812-851.
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1747-7379.2011.00869.x
Type: Journal Article

Cortés, P., & Tessada, J. (2011). Low-Skilled Immigration and the Labor Supply of Highly Skilled Women. American Economic Journal: Applied Economics, 3(3), 88-123.
https://doi.org/10.1257/app.3.3.88
Type: Journal Article

Farré, L., González, L., & Ortega, F. (2011). Immigration, Family Responsibilities and the Labor Supply of Skilled Native Women. The B.E. Journal of Economic Analysis & Policy, 11(1).
https://doi.org/10.2202/1935-1682.2875
Type: Journal Article

Furtado, D. (2015). Can immigrants help women “have it all”? Immigrant labor and women’s joint fertility and labor supply decisions. IZA Journal of Migration, 4(1).
https://doi.org/10.1186/s40176-015-0043-x
Type: Journal Article

Furtado, D. (2015). Immigrant labor and work-family decisions of native-born women. IZA World of Labor.
https://doi.org/10.15185/izawol.139
Type: Journal Article

Ottaviano, G., & Peri, G. (2011). Rethinking the effect of immigration on wages. Journal of the European Economic Association, 10(1), 152-197.
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1542-4774.2011.01052.x
Type: Journal Article

Peri, G., & Sparber, C. (2009). Task Specialization, Immigration, and Wages. American Economic Journal: Applied Economics, 1(3), 135-169.
https://doi.org/10.1257/app.1.3.135
Type: Journal Article

Tan, P., & Gibson, J. (2013). Impact of Foreign Maids on Female Labor Force Participation in Malaysia. Asian Economic Journal, 27(2), 163-183.
https://doi.org/10.1111/asej.12008
Type: Journal Article

Cortés, P., & Pan, J. (2013). Outsourcing Household Production: Foreign Domestic Workers and Native Labor Supply in Hong Kong. Journal of Labor Economics, 31(2), 327-371. 
https://doi.org/10.1086/668675
Type: Journal Article

Barone, G., & Mocetti, S. (2011). With a little help from abroad: The effect of low-skilled immigration on the female labour supply. Labour Economics, 18(5), 664-675. 
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.labeco.2011.01.010
Type: Journal Article

Forlani, E., Lodigiani, E., & Mendolicchio, C. (2014). Impact of Low-Skilled Immigration on Female Labour Supply. The Scandinavian Journal of Economics, 117(2), 452-492. 
https://doi.org/10.1111/sjoe.12101
Type: Journal Article

Freire, T. (2016). How the 1978 Foreign Domestic Workers Law Increased the Labor Supply of Singaporean Women. The Singapore Economic Review, 61(05), 1550075. 
https://doi.org/10.1142/s0217590815500757
Type: Journal Article

Hughes, C. (2019). Reexamining the Influence of Conditional Cash Transfers on Migration from a Gendered Lens. Demography, 56(5), 1573-1605.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s13524-019-00815-0
Type: Journal Article

This section supplements the poverty and inequality section in recommended readings and focuses on readings relevant to gender and poverty/inequality.

Gornick, J., & Boeri, N. (2016). Gender and Poverty. In D.  Brady & L.  Burton, The Oxford Handbook of the Social Science of Poverty. Oxford University Press. Retrieved 8 June 2021. 
http://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199914050.013.11.
Type: Book Chapter

Kabeer, N. (2015). Gender, poverty, and inequality: a brief history of feminist contributions in the field of international development. Gender & Development, 23(2), 189-205. 
https://doi.org/10.1080/13552074.2015.1062300
Type: Journal Article

UN Women (n.d.). United Nations Entity for Gender Equality and the Empowerment of Women. (2018). Turning Promises into Action: Gender Equality in the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development.
http://www.unwomen.org/en/digital-library/sdg-report.
Type: Report

Dasgupta, I. (2001). Gender-Biased Redistribution and Intra-household Distribution. European Economic Review, 45(9), 1711–1722.
https://doi.org/10.1016/S0014-2921(00)00064-7
Type: Journal Article

Findlay, J., & Wright, R. (1996). Gender, Poverty and the Intra-household Distribution of Resources. Review of Income and Wealth, 42(3), 335–351.
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1475-4991.1996.tb00186.x
Type: Journal Article

Haddad, L., & Kanbur, R. (1990). How Serious is the Neglect of Intra-Household Inequality? The Economic Journal, 100(402), 866–881.
http://www.diva-portal.org/smash/record.jsf?pid=diva2%3A331624&dswid=5954
Type: Journal Article

Jenkins, S. (1991). Poverty Measurement and the Within-Household Distribution: Agenda for Action. Journal of Social Politics, 20(4), 457–483.
https://doi.org/10.1017/S0047279400019760
Type: Journal Article

Kanbur, R., & Haddad, L. (1994). Are Better Off Households More Unequal or Less Unequal? Oxford Economic Papers, 46(3), 445–458.
https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordjournals.oep.a042140
Type: Journal Article

Lazear, E., & Michael, R. (1988). Allocation of Income Within the Household. The University Press.
Type: Book

Lundberg, S., & Pollack, R. (1993). Separate Spheres Bargaining and the Marriage Market. Journal of Political Economy, 101(6), 988–1010.
https://doi.org/10.1086/261912
Type: Journal Article

Manser, M., & Brown, M. (1980). Marriage and Household Decision-Making: a Bargaining Analysis. International Economic Review, 21(1), 31–44.
https://doi.org/10.2307/2526238
Type: Journal Article

Mcelroy, M. B., & Horney, M. J. (1981). Nash-bargained Household Decisions: Toward a Generalization of the Theory of Demand. International Economic Review, 22(2), 333–349.
https://doi.org/10.2307/2526280
Type: Journal Article

Pollak, R. (1984). For Better or Worse: The Roles of Power in Models of Distribution within Marriage. American Economic Review 84(2), 148-152. 
https://www.jstor.org/stable/2117819?seq=1
Type: Journal Article

Fukuda Parr, S. (1999). What Does Feminization of Poverty Mean? It Isn’t Just Lack of Income. Feminist Economics, 5(2), 99–103.
https://doi.org/10.1080/135457099337996
Type: Journal Article

Pressman, S. (2002). Explaining the Gender Poverty Gap in Developed and Transitional Economies. Journal of Economic Issues, 36(1), 17–40.
https://doi.org/10.1080/00213624.2002.11506441
Type: Journal Article

Quisumbing, A., Haddad, L., & Pena, C. (2001). Are Women Overrepresented among the Poor? An Analysis of Poverty in 10 Developing Countries. Journal of Development Economics, 66(1), 225–269.
https://doi.org/10.1016/S0304-3878(01)00152-3
Type: Journal Article

Chant, S. H. (2007). Gender, generation and poverty: Exploring the “feminisation of poverty” in Africa, Asia and Latin America. Edward Elgar.
Type: Monograph Book
(Note: Introduction available to download free at https://www.elgaronline.com/view/9781843769927.00007.xml)

Fuwa, N. (2000). The Poverty and Heterogeneity among Female-Headed Households Revisited: The Case of Panama. World Development, 28(8), 1515–1542.
https://doi.org/10.1016/S0305-750X(00)00036-X
Type: Journal Article

O’ Donnell, M. (2019) How Significant Is Household Headship? Agnes Quisumbing and Dominique van de Walle on the CGD Podcast, Center For Global Development (cgdev.org)
https://www.cgdev.org/blog/how-significant-household-headship-agnes-quisumbing-and-dominique-van-de-walle-cgd-podcast
Type: Blog/podcast

Klasen, S., & Lahoti, R. (2020). How Serious is the Neglect of Intra-Household Inequality in Multidimensional Poverty and Inequality Analyses? Evidence from India. Review of Income and Wealth, 
https://doi.org/10.1111/roiw.12491
Type: Journal Article

Munoz Boudet, A., Buitrago, P., De La Briere, B., Newhouse, D., Rubiano Matulevich, E., Scott, K., & Suarez-Becerra, P. (2018). Gender Differences in Poverty and Household Composition through the Life-Cycle: A Global Perspective. (World Bank Policy Research Working Paper, 8360). Retrieved 12 June 2021.
https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/handle/10986/29426.
Type: Working paper

Time poverty refers to the fact that some individuals spend so much time in paid and/or unpaid work that they do not have time for rest or leisure. Gender roles and the higher burden of care and unpaid work that women bear make them at greater risk to face time poverty. Refer readings on care and unpaid work for readings related to time use data.

Bardasi, E., & Wodon, Q. (2006). Measuring time poverty and analyzing its determinants: concepts and application to Guinea. Gender, time use, and poverty in Sub-Saharan Africa, 73, 75-95.

Ringhofer, L. (2015). Time, labour, and the household: measuring “time poverty” through a gender lens. Development In Practice, 25(3), 321-332.
https://doi.org/10.1080/09614524.2015.1016867
Type: Journal Article

Williams, J., Masuda, Y., & Tallis, H. (2015). A Measure Whose Time has Come: Formalizing Time Poverty. Social Indicators Research, 128(1), 265-283.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s11205-015-1029-z
Type: Journal Article

Access to reproductive health care has important implications for achieving gender equality.  In the economics literature, there is quite extensive research on the economics of ensuring access to contraception and prenatal and maternal health care and the economic implications of access to contraception and abortion.  This work is included in sections a. and b. below. The impact of policy on breastfeeding is a related topic covered in section c. Recently, economists have turned their attention to transactional sex, analyzing both the economic reasons that women turn to transactional sex and the implications of these strategies.  This work is covered in section d.  Research on a range of other topics related to women’s reproductive health are collected in section e. Included there is also one paper on gender differences in access to general health care among the elderly.

Ashraf, N., Field, E., & Lee, J. (2014). Household Bargaining and Excess Fertility: An Experimental Study in Zambia. American Economic Review, 104(7), 2210–2237. 
https://doi.org/10.1257/aer.104.7.2210
Type: Journal Article

Bernstein, A., & Jones, K. (2019). The Economic Effects of Abortion Access: A Review of the Evidence. IWPR 2020.
https://iwpr.org/iwpr-issues/reproductive-health/the-economic-effects-of-abortion-access-a-review-of-the-evidence/
Type: Report

Bernstein, A., & Jones, K. (2019). The Economic Effects of Contraceptive Access: A Review of the Evidence. IWPR 2020.
https://iwpr.org/iwpr-issues/reproductive-health/the-economic-effects-of-contraceptive-access-a-review-of-the-evidence/
Type: Report

Cannonier, C. (2014). Does the Family and Medical Leave Act (FMLA) Increase Fertility Behavior? Journal of Labor Research, 35(2), 105–132.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s12122-014-9181-9
Type: Journal Article

Bailey, M. J. (2006). More Power to the Pill: The Impact of Contraceptive Freedom on Women’s Life Cycle Labor Supply. The Quarterly Journal of Economics, 121(1), 289–320. 
https://doi.org/10.1093/qje/121.1.289
Type: Journal Article

Jones, K. M. (2015). Contraceptive Supply and Fertility Outcomes: Evidence from Ghana. Economic Development and Cultural Change, 64(1), 31–69.
https://doi.org/10.1086/682981
Type: Journal Article

McKelvey, C., Thomas, D., & Frankenberg, E. (2012). Fertility Regulation in an Economic Crisis. Economic Development and Cultural Change, 61(1), 7–38.
https://doi.org/10.1086/666950
Type: Journal Article

Miller, S., Wherry, L., & Foster, D. G. (2020). The Economic Consequences of Being Denied an Abortion (No. w26662; p. w26662). National Bureau of Economic Research. 
https://doi.org/10.3386/w26662
Type: Working Paper

Monica Das Gupta. (2013). Women’s empowerment and fertility: Policy lessons. NATIONS UNIES. UNDESA.
https://www.un.org/development/desa/pd/fr/node/2619
Type: Report

Rodgers, Y. van der M., Coast, E., Lattof, S. R., Poss, C., & Moore, B. (2021). The macroeconomics of abortion: A scoping review and analysis of the costs and outcomes. PLOS ONE, 16(5), e0250692.
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0250692
Type: Journal Article

Ahmed, S., & Khan, M. M. (2011). Is demand-side financing equity enhancing? Lessons from a maternal health voucher scheme in Bangladesh. Social Science & Medicine, 72(10), 1704–1710. 
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2011.03.031
Type: Journal Article

Arthur, E. (2012). Wealth and antenatal care use: Implications for maternal health care utilisation in Ghana. Health Economics Review, 2(1), 14.
https://doi.org/10.1186/2191-1991-2-14.
Type: Journal Article

Beegle, K., Frankenberg, E., & Thomas, D. (2001). Bargaining Power Within Couples and Use of Prenatal and Delivery Care in Indonesia. Studies in Family Planning, 32(2), 130–146. 
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1728-4465.2001.00130.x
Type: Journal Article

Kruk, M. E., Galea, S., Prescott, M., & Freedman, L. P. (2007). Health care financing and utilization of maternal health services in developing countries. Health Policy and Planning, 22(5), 303–310.
https://doi.org/10.1093/heapol/czm027
Type: Journal Article

Meurs, M., & Giddings, L. A. (2012). Maternal Healthcare in Tajikistan: A Bargaining Framework. Feminist Economics, 18(3), 109–140.
https://doi.org/10.1080/13545701.2012.719393
Type: Journal Article

Baker, M., & Milligan, K. (2008). Maternal employment, breastfeeding, and health: Evidence from maternity leave mandates. Journal of Health Economics, 27(4), 871–887. 
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhealeco.2008.02.006
Type: Journal Article

Bono, E. D., & Pronzato, C. D. (2012). Does Breastfeeding Support at Work Help Mothers and Employers at the Same Time?  *IZA Discussion Paper No. 6619).
https://ssrn.com/abstract=2085206
Type: Journal Article

Huang, R., & Yang, M. (2015). Paid maternity leave and breastfeeding practice before and after California’s implementation of the nation’s first paid family leave program. Economics & Human Biology, 16, 45–59.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ehb.2013.12.009
Type: Journal Article

Jones, K., & Gong, E. (2021). Precautionary savings and shock-coping behaviors: Effects of promoting mobile bank savings on transactional sex in Kenya. Journal of Health Economics, 78, 102460.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhealeco.2021.102460
Type: Journal Article

Wamoyi, J., Stobeanau, K., Bobrova, N., Abramsky, T., & Watts, C. (2016). Transactional sex and risk for HIV infection in sub-Saharan Africa: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Journal of the International AIDS Society, 19(1), 20992.
https://doi.org/10.7448/IAS.19.1.20992
Type: Journal Article

Willman, A. (2008). Safety First, Then Condoms: Commercial Sex, Risky Behavior, and the Spread of HIV/AIDS in Managua, Nicaragua. Feminist Economics, 14(4), 37–65. 
https://doi.org/10.1080/13545700802262931
Type: Journal Article

Adam, T., Bathija, H., Bishai, D., Bonnenfant, Y.-T., Darwish, M., Huntington, D., & Johansen, E. (2010). Estimating the obstetric costs of female genital mutilation in six African countries. Bulletin of the World Health Organization, 88, 281–288.
https://doi.org/10.1590/S0042-96862010000400014
Type: Journal Article

Bullinger, L. R. (2019). The Effect of Paid Family Leave on Infant and Parental Health in the United States. Journal of Health Economics, 66, 101–116.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhealeco.2019.05.006
Type: Journal Article

Gammage, S., Joshi, S., & Rodgers, Y. van der M. (2020). The Intersections of Women’s Economic and Reproductive Empowerment. Feminist Economics, 26(1), 1–22.
https://doi.org/10.1080/13545701.2019.1674451
Type: Journal Article

Gammage, S., Sultana, N.,  & Glinski, A. (2020). Reducing Vulnerable Employment: Is there a Role for Reproductive Health, Social Protection, and Labor Market Policy?  Feminist Economics, 26:1, 121-153.
https://doi.org/10.1080/13545701.2019.1670350  
Type: Journal Article

Hewitson, G. (2014). The Commodified Womb and Neoliberal Families. Review of Radical Political Economics, 46(4), 489–495.
https://doi.org/10.1177/0486613414537989
Type: Journal Article

Rodgers, Y. van der M., & Zveglich, Jr., J. E. (2021). Gender Differences in Access to Health Care Among the Elderly: Evidence from Southeast Asia. Asian Development Bank. 
https://doi.org/10.22617/WPS210047-2
Type: Working Paper

Sully, E., Biddlecom, A., Darroch, J. E., Riley, T., Ashford, L. S., Lince-Deroche, N., Firestein, L., & Murro, R. (2020). Adding It Up: Investing in Sexual and Reproductive Health 2019. 
https://doi.org/10.1363/2020.31637
Type: Report

Appleton, S., & Collier, P. (1995). On Gender Targeting of Public Transfers. In D. van de Walle & K. Nead (Eds.), Public spending and the poor: Theory and evidence (pp. 555–581). Johns Hopkins University Press for the World Bank.
https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED392581
Type: Book Chapter

Beneria, L., & Floro, M. (2006). Labour Market Informalization, Gender and Social Protection: Reflections on Poor Urban Households in Bolivia and Ecuador. In Razavi, S. & Hassim, S., Gender and Social Policy in a Global Context. Social Policy in a Development Context. Palgrave Macmillan. Retrieved 12 June 2021.
https://doi.org/10.1057/9780230625280_9.
Type: Journal Article

Bonilla, J., Zarzur, R., Handa, S., Nowlin, C., Peterman, A., Ring, H., & Seidenfeld, D. (2017). Cash for Women’s Empowerment? A Mixed-Methods Evaluation of the Government of Zambia’s Child Grant Program. World Development, 95, 55-72.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2017.02.017
Type: Journal Article

Camilletti, E. (2020). Social Protection and Its Effects on Gender Equality: A literature review (Innocenti Working Paper WP 2020-16; p. 66). UNICEF.https://www.unicefirc.org/publications/pdf/Social_Protection
_and_Its_Effects_on_Gender_Equality_A_literature_review.pdf
Type: Working Paper

Holmes, R., Jones, N., Mannan, F., Vargas, R., Tafere, Y., & Woldehanna, T. (2011). Addressing gendered risks and vulnerabilities through social protection: examples of good practice from Bangladesh, Ethiopia, and Peru. Gender & Development, 19(2), 255-270.
https://doi.org/10.1080/13552074.2011.592637
Type: Journal Article

Holmes, R., & Jones, N. (2010). How to design and implement gender-sensitive social protection programmes - (p. 68). ODI.
Type: Toolkit

Holmes, Rebecca & Jones, Nicola. (2013). Gender and Social Protection in the Developing World: Beyond mothers and safety nets. ZED Books.
https://www.zedbooks.net/shop/book/gender-and-social-protection-in-the-developing-world/
Type: Book

Kabeer, N. (2008). Mainstreaming gender in social protection for the informal economy. Commonwealth Secretariat.
Type: Book/report

Kukrety, N., & Mohanty, S. (2011). Putting gender equality at the heart of social protection: lessons from Oxfam GB's experience with safety net programming. Gender & Development, 19(2), 271-281.
https://doi.org/10.1080/13552074.2011.592638
Type: Journal Article

Molyneux, Maxine. (2008). Conditional Cash Transfers: A ‘Pathway to Women’s Empowerment’? Pathways to Women’s Empowerment (Working Paper 5). IDS University of Sussex. 
https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/57a08b4eed915d3cfd000c52/PathwaysWP5-website.pdf
Type: Working Paper

Patel, L., & Hochfeld, T. (2011). It buys food but does it change gender relations? Child Support Grants in Soweto, South Africa. Gender & Development, 19(2), 229-240.
https://doi.org/10.1080/13552074.2011.592633
Type: Journal Article

Perri, M., Metheny, N., Matheson, F., Potvin, K., & O’Campo, P. (2021). Finding opportunity in the COVID-19 crisis: prioritizing gender in the design of social protection policies. Health Promotion International.
https://doi.org/10.1093/heapro/daab045
Type: Journal Article

Razavi, Shahra, Arza, Cecilia, Cook, Sarah, & Braunstein, Elissa. (2012). Gendered Impacts of Globalization: Employment and Social Protection. UNRISD.
https://www.unrisd.org/unrisd/website/document.nsf/
(httpPublications)/1EAA1985666DB496C1257A590052D22A?OpenDocument
Type: Policy Brief

Sabates-Wheeler, R., & Roelen, K. (2011). Transformative social protection programming for children and their carers: A gender perspective. Gender & Development, 19(2), 179–194.
https://doi.org/10.1080/13552074.2011.592629
Type: Journal Article

Staab,Silke. (2016). Making national social protection floors work for women.
https://www.unwomen.org/en/digital-library/publications/2015/12/making-social-protection-floors-work-for-women
Type: Policy Report

There is increasing research in economics into the factors associated with violence against women and the economic implications of such violence.   Here we include research related to domestic and intimate partner violence, but there is also literature on violence related to war, in both political science and economics (see, for example, Wood, 2006 https://doi.org/10.1177/0032329206290426 and Diaz, Salas and Tribín-Uribe, 2020. "Hidden benefits of peace: The case of sexual violence," Borradores de Economia 1124, Banco de la Republica de Colombia).

Aizer, A. (2010). The Gender Wage Gap and Domestic Violence. American Economic Review, 100(4), 1847–1859.
https://doi.org/10.1257/aer.100.4.1847
Type: Journal Article

Alonso-Borrego, C., & Carrasco, R. (2017). Employment and the risk of domestic violence: Does the breadwinner’s gender matter? Applied Economics, 49(50), 5074–5091. 
https://doi.org/10.1080/00036846.2017.1299103
Type: Journal Article

Amaral, S. (2014). Do Improved Property Rights Decrease Violence Against Women in India? SSRN Electronic Journal.
https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.2504579
Type: Journal Article

Amaral, S., Bandyopadhyay, S., & Sensarma, R. (2015). Employment Programmes for the Poor and Female Empowerment: The Effect of NREGS on Gender-based Violence in India. Journal of Interdisciplinary Economics, 27(2), 199–218.
https://doi.org/10.1177/0260107915582295
Type: Journal Article

Buller, A. M., Peterman, A., Ranganathan, M., Bleile, A., Hidrobo, M., & Heise, L. (2018). A Mixed-Method Review of Cash Transfers and Intimate Partner Violence in Low- and Middle-Income Countries. The World Bank Research Observer, 33(2), 218–258. 
https://doi.org/10.1093/wbro/lky002
Type: Journal Article

González, L., & Rodríguez-Planas, N. (2020). Gender norms and intimate partner violence. Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization, 178, 223–248. 
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jebo.2020.07.024
Type: Journal Article

Heath, R., Hidrobo, M., & Roy, S. (2020). Cash transfers, polygamy, and intimate partner violence: Experimental evidence from Mali. Journal of Development Economics, 143, 102410. 
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jdeveco.2019.102410
Type: Journal Article

Henke, A., & Hsu, L. (2020). The gender wage gap, weather, and intimate partner violence. Review of Economics of the Household, 18(2), 413–429.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s11150-020-09483-1
Type: Journal Article

Hsu, L., & Henke, A. (2021). The Effect of Sheltering in Place on Police Reports of Domestic Violence in the US. Feminist Economics, 27(1–2), 362–379. 
https://doi.org/10.1080/13545701.2020.1830145
Type: Journal Article

Iregui-Bohórquez, A. M., Ramírez-Giraldo, M. T., & Tribín-Uribe, A. M. (2019). Domestic Violence Against Rural Women in Colombia: The Role of Labor Income. Feminist Economics, 25(2), 146–172.
https://doi.org/10.1080/13545701.2019.1566752
Type: Journal Article

John, N. A. (2020). Exploring the Linkages Between Women’s Paid and Unpaid Work and Their Experiences of Intimate Partner and Non-Partner Violence in Nepal. Feminist Economics, 26(4), 89–113.
https://doi.org/10.1080/13545701.2020.1828601
Type: Journal Article

Lenze, J., & Klasen, S. (2017). Does Women’s Labor Force Participation Reduce Domestic Violence? Evidence from Jordan. Feminist Economics, 23(1), 1–29. 
https://doi.org/10.1080/13545701.2016.1211305
Type: Journal Article

Oduro, A. D., Deere, C. D., & Catanzarite, Z. B. (2015). Women’s Wealth and Intimate Partner Violence: Insights from Ecuador and Ghana. Feminist Economics, 21(2), 1–29. 
https://doi.org/10.1080/13545701.2014.997774
Type: Journal Article

Roy, S., Hidrobo, M., Hoddinott, J., & Ahmed, A. (2019). Transfers, Behavior Change Communication, and Intimate Partner Violence: Postprogram Evidence from Rural Bangladesh. The Review of Economics and Statistics, 101(5), 865–877.
https://doi.org/10.1162/rest_a_00791
Type: Journal Article

Strenio, J. (2020). Time Heals all Wounds? A Capabilities Approach for Analyzing Intimate Partner Violence. Feminist Economics, 26(4), 31–55. 
https://doi.org/10.1080/13545701.2020.1756375
Type: Journal Article

Raghavendra, S., Duvvury, N., & Ashe, S. (2017). The Macroeconomic Loss due to Violence Against Women: The Case of Vietnam. Feminist Economics, 23(4), 62–89. 
https://doi.org/10.1080/13545701.2017.1330546
Type: Journal Article

Social Policy and Development Centre (SPDC), NUI Galway, Ipsos Mori, and International Centre for Research on Women (ICRW) (2019). Economic and Social Costs of Violence Against Women in Pakistan: Summary Report. Galway: NUI Galway.
https://www.icrw.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/04/economic-social-costs-violence-women-girls-pakistan-2019.pdf
Type: Report

ILO. (2020). Safe and Healthy Working Environments free from violence and harassment. ILO. 
https://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---ed_protect/---protrav/---safework/documents/publication/wcms_751832.pdf
Type: Working Paper

ILO. (2019). Eliminating Violence and Harassment in the World of Work: ILO Convention No. 190, Recommendation No. 206, and the accompanying Resolution [Publication]. ILO. 
http://www.ilo.org/global/publications/meeting-reports/WCMS_721160/lang--en/index.htm
Type: ILO Convention

King, C (2019, October 7). We made history with the Violence and Harassment Convention – now comes the work of bringing the law to life. Equal Times.
https://www.equaltimes.org/we-made-history-with-the-violence
Type: Blog

Węziak-Białowolska, D., Białowolski, P., & McNeely, E. (2020). The impact of workplace harassment and domestic violence on work outcomes in the developing world. World Development, 126, 104732.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2019.104732
Type: Journal Article